(i) In the winter of 1917, conditions in Petrograd were grim. The layout of the city emphasised divisions among the people. While workers quarters and factories i.e the poor were located to the right of River Neva, the official building including the Palace and-fashionable areas were on the left bank.
(ii) In February 1917, food shortage's were deeply felt in the workers quarters (right bank). The winter that year was exceptionally cold, marked with frost and heavy snow.
(iii) On 22nd February a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank. Next day, workers of fifty factories called a strike, led by women. The fashionable quarters and official buildings were surrounded by workers. The Government imposed a curfew. When the workers came back on the 24th and 25th, the government called out the police and cavalry provoking the workers.
(iv) On Sunday, 25th February the government suspended the Duma. Demonstrators ransacked the Police Headquarters. Streets were full of people raising slogans about bread, wages, better hours and democracy.
(v) The government tried to control the situation but the cavalry refused to fire on the demonstrators. An officer was shot, three regiments mutinied voting to join the strikers.
(vi) By the evening (Feb 25th) soldiers and striking workers gathered to form a 'Soviet' or 'Council' called the 'Petrograd Soviet' in the same building as the Duma met.
(vii) Under the advice of the Military commanders, the Tsar abdicated on 2nd March Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government to run the country.
(viii) Russia's future was hence to be decided by a constituent assembly, elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage.

(i) The Directory was an executive made up of ive members
(ii) This was meant as a safeguard against concentration of power in a one man executive as under the Jacobins.
(iii) It was appointed by the two elected legislative councils that came into being under the new constitution after the fall of the Jacobins.
Drawbacks:
(i) The Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who sought to dismiss them.
(ii) The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte

(i) Non fulfillment of demands: Kerenskii's government was overthrown because it was unpopular with the people. It failed to meet the demands of the people for peace, land to the tiller, control of industries to workers' and equal status to non-Russian nationalities.
(ii) Lenin: In April 1917 the Bolshevik leader Lenin returned to Russia from exile. He put forward the April Thesis due to which he got full support. Kerenskii's government sought to establish political democracy through constitutional means but the Bolsheviks under Lenin wanted to establish a socialist state immediately, even if it meant taking recourse to violent means.
(iii) Bolsheviks: The Bolshevik party played a leading role. They campaigned against the war, and for peace on the basis of no annexations and no indemnities. Moreover German advances threatened Petrograd. This increased support for the Bolsheviks.
(iv) War: The Russians were war weary. Bolshevik ranks swelled with numbers and they controlled the Petrograd Soviet.
(v) Coup: Bolsheviks successfully staged a coup in October 1917 and overthrew the Provisional Government of Kerenskii.

Values which were disturbing the balance of a country like France were:
(i) Not all citizens had the right to vote. Out of a population of 28 million, only 4 million i.e. 14% of the population had the right to vote.
(ii) The 'passive' citizens had no right to vote.
(iii) Nearly 3 million men, women and youth were below 25 years of age. They were categorized as 'passive' citizens, because in France only men 25 years of age who paid taxes were given status of 'active' citizens.
(iv) Despite being active participants in the events which brought important changes in French society, women whatever their age and economic status were denied voting rights.

Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on the charge of treason. On 21 January 1793 he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde. The queen Marie Antoinette met with the same fate shortly after it.

The Radicals

The countries marked on the above map are
(i) France
(ii) England
(iii) Russia
(iv) America

(i) Moscow, as the author describes, is much less clean than other European capitals. The whole place belongs to the workers.
(ii) The mass now look smart and enlightened.
(iii) The author calls so for being a citizen of the country which had long been under the influence of illiteracy and poverty and it took a long time to remove them.

(a) Olympe de Gouges opined that woman was born free and, therefore, she should remain equal to man in rights. There should not be any disparity between both the sexes.
(b) According to Olympe de Gouges, the goal of all political associations should be the preservation of all the natural rights (liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression) of woman and man.
(c) She was of the opinion that the law should be the expression of the general will. All female and male citraens should have a say either personally or by their representatives in its formulation, it should be the same for all.

(i) Bolsheviks were the majority group of the workers of Russia and their leader was Lenin.
(ii) The popular demonstration by the Bolsheviks was harshly repressed by the Provisional Government because Bolshevik influence was growing fast and the government was afraid that it might give rise to another revolution.