After the fall of Robespierre's government, the wealthier middle classes came forward to seize power. A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to non propertied sections of the society. It provided for two elected legislative councils. These then appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five members. This was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of power in a one-man executive as under the Jacobins. However the Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them. Thus, the Directory became the victim of political instability which paved the way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. 

The following changes were brought about by the National Assembly:
(i) The powers of Louis XVI were reduced. He was now king only in name.
(ii) On the night of 4 August 1789, the Assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes,
(iii) The members of the clergy were forced to give up their privileges.
(iv) Taxes were abolished and lands owned by the church were confiscated.

(i) The French society was divided into three estates in the 18th century: the first estate was comprised of the clergy, the second estate was comprised of the nobility and the third estate was comprised of the common mass, i.e. big businessmen, merchants, lawyers, peasants, artisans, landless labour, etc. The members of the first two estates enjoyed certain privileges by birth.
(ii) They were exempted from paying taxes to the state. The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges. These included feudal dues, which they extracted from the peasants. Then came the third estate which was very far from any such privileges.
(iii) The members of this estate had to pay taxes to the state. They also had no political rights and social status.

The French society was divided into three estates
(i) The First estate It comprised of the clergy and richer members. They were exempted from paying taxes to the state.
(ii) The Second estate They were the aristocrats and landlords. They were considered above law and exempted from paying taxes.
(iii) The Third estate This comprised the peasants, artisans, city workers, and the middle-class people like teachers, doctors, lawyers, writers, etc. All such people had no political rights.
(iv) They had to pay many kinds of taxes like tithes to church by peasant and a direct tax, i.e. taille and also a number of indirect taxes were given by all member of third estate.

A large group among the Jacobins decided to start wearing long striped trousers similar to those worn by dock workers. This was to set themselves apart from the fashionable sections of society, especially nobles, who wore knee length breeches. These Jacobins came to be known as the 'sans-culottes', literally meaning 'those without knee breeches'. Sans-culottes men wore a red cap that symbolised liberty.

1. In 1791, the National Assembly completed the draft of the Constitution. Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. The powers, instead of being concentrated in the hands of the monarch, were now separated and divided between the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary.
2. The Constitution also declared that it was the duty of the state to protect each citizen's natural rights. In this way, France became a constitutional monarchy.

The Source of growing wealth of the middle class - merchants and businessman-was the overseas trade with the French colonies in America in commodities like sugar, tobacco, coffee, indigo and slaves. The manufactures among them made money by trading in woolen and silk textiles which was either exported or bought by the rich members of the society.

(i) 'Tithe' from peasants to the church.
(ii) 'Taille' a direct tax to the state.
(iii) Indirect taxes to the state like taxes on salt and tobacco were some of the taxes levied on the third Estate.

The term 'Society of Estate' refers to how French society based on feudal system that dated back to the middle ages was divided into three estates or classes. The clergy and nobility belonged to the first and second estate. They were the privileged classes. The third estate constituted of business man, manufacturers, traders, professionals, peasants and artisans.  This class formed the unprivileged section of society.

(i) The main objective of the draft constitution of 1791 was to limit the powers of the monarch
(ii) These powers instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person were to be separated and assigned to different institutions the legislature executive and judiciary.
(iii) This made France a constitutional monarchy

(i) The main objective of the draft constitution of 1791 was to limit the powers of the monarch
(ii) These powers instead of being concentrated in the hands of one person were to be separated and assigned to different institutions the legislature executive and judiciary.
(iii) This made France a constitutional monarchy

(i) Yes, the two documents are consistent.
(ii) Yes, the two documents convey the same idea-human beings are born equal and all citizens are equal in the eyes of law.

(a) She was on e of the most important of the politically active women in revolutionary France.
(b) She protested against Decalration of Rights of Men and Citizen for excluding women from basic rights.
(c) In 1791 she write a Decalration of the Rights of Women and Citizen which she addressed to the queen.
(d) She criticised the Jacobin government for forcibily closing down women's clubs, She was charged by the National convention with treason and soon after executed. 

The 'Reign of Terror' (1793-1794) bacame possible because of the overthrow of all familar established forms of government in France. Moreover, France at this time was faced with the double menace of counter revolution at home and invasion from abroad.

(i) Jacobin clubs were political clubs that spring up after the revlutionary wars.
(ii) These clubs were important rallying point for point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of action.
(iii) It got its name from the former convent of St  Jacob in Paris
Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre.

The following circumstances led to the outbreak of the revolutionary protest in France:
(i) Louis XVI was an autocratic ruler who could not compromise with his luxurious life. He also lacked farsightedness.
(ii) Upon his accession the royal treasury of France was empty. Long years of war had drained the financial resources of France. Added to this was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the immense palace of Versailles.
(iii) Under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from Britain. The war added more than a billion livers to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livers. Leaders who gave the state credit now began to charge 10 percent interest on loans. So, the French government was obliged to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments alone.
(iv) The state finally increased taxes to meet its regular expenses such as the cost of maintaining an army, running government offices or universities.
(v) The French society was divided into three estates but only members of the third estate (peasants, artisans, workers, etc.) had to pay taxes. The members of the first two estates, i.e. the clergy and the nobility, were exempted to pay state taxes. They belonged to the privileged class. Thus, the burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the third estate alone.
(vi) The middle class that emerged in 18th century France was educated and enlightened. They refuted the theory of the divine right of kings and absolute monarchy. They believed that a person's social position must depend on his merit. They had access to the various ideas of equality and freedom proposed by the philosophers like John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, etc. Their ideas got popularised among the common mass as a result of intensive discussions and debates in salons and coffeehouses and through books and newspapers.
(vii) The French administration was extremely corrupt. It didn't give weightage to the French common mass.
All the above circumstances paved the way for revolutionary protest in France.

(i) French Revolution: The causes for the rise of Napoleon lay in the French Revolution itself. As happens in revolutions there was political and economic instability in France and a struggle for power.
(ii) New Constitution Directory: After the fall of the Jacobin government a new constitution was introduced. It provided for two legislative councils and a Directory (an executive made up of five members). The Directory often clashed with the legislative councils who then sought to dismiss them. This clash was responsible for political instability. Napoleon took advantage of the situation and became a dictator with the help of the army. He proclaimed himself Emperor of France in 1804.
(iii) Victories of Napoleon: Napoleon was a brilliant General and used his armies to conquer and dominate all the neighbouring countries except Britain and Russia. Glorious victories of Napoleon in wars made the French realise, only a soldiers’ sword could restore discipline and respect for authority and a stable government.
(iv) The French Revolution was motivated more by social wrongs and economic injustices than by political grievances. The French realized since Napoleon was a product of the revolution, his power was a guarantee that aristocratic privileges would not be restored and people would remain in possession of the lands.
These factors paved the way for the rise of Napoleon.

Yes, the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions.
(i) The revolution came about with the support of the common man—the city poor and the peasant. The right to vote and elect representatives did not solve their problem. Real equality could come only with economic equality.
(ii)Right to vote was given only to selected persons
(iii)The contradiction was also evident as regards women. Women did not enjoy the same political rights - right to vote and hold political offices like men - nor were their wages equal to men.
(iv) The French wars which began in the name of liberty and equality ended in French becoming conquerors instead of liberators in direct contradiction of the terms as the French held on to, and undertook expansion of colonies.
(v) Slave trade, one of the most inhuman practices, exploitation of slaves to serve vested interests, was yet another glaring contradiction.

Some of the democratic rights which we enjoy today, whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution are an integral part of the–Preamble, Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution.
(i) Right to equality including equality before law, prohibition of discrimination and equality of opportunity in matters of employment.
(ii) Right to freedom of speech and expression including right to practice any profession or occupation.
(iii) Right against exploitation.
(iv) Right to life.
(v) Right to vote.
(vi) Promotion of the idea of fraternity by maintaining friendly relations with foreign countries in the spirit of brotherhood.

(i) The French Revolutionary ideas of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity became inspiring ideals that motivated political movements in the world in the 19th and 20th centuries. The social and political changes that took place all over Europe can be traced to the French Revolution.
(ii) The idea of Liberty expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen laid the foundation of a new social order. Liberty, political and personal became a universal creed.
(iii) Personal liberty led to the abolition of serfdom and freed the peasantry from the tyranny of the landed aristocracy and the church. It brought in the age of capitalism.
(iv) Political liberty of democratic rights found expression in abolition of privileges and despotism of monarchs.
(v) The idea of the Equality led to the end of society based on privileges. It led to increasing recognition of the interests of the masses. All individuals had rights, became the new language of politics.
(vi) Another great legacy of the French Revolution was the idea of nationalism — sovereignty of the people. The greatest effect was starting of mass movements all over the world. This was the potent force in reshaping the boundaries of Europe and South America.
(vii) The Revolution acted as a guiding force for the peoples of colonies like India. Even to this day the forces let loose by the French Revolution are powerful and are working the destinies of the nations of the world.

The groups which gained from the revolution were people of the third estate. These included the new middle class including big businessmen, merchants, court officials, and other professionals like lawyers. Formerly they had to pay all the taxes and were humiliated both by the clergy and nobles. After the revolution, they began to be treated equally with the upper sections of society. Certain sections of the third estate were also given political rights.
1. Relinquish Power:
The classes, which formed the privileged sections of society like the nobility, clergy, and aristocracy were forced to relinquish their special privileges. Now the French society was organized on the basis of social equality. The revolution also led to the nationalism of church property.
2. Disappointed:
(a) The less privileged classes in terms of money, land and education i.e., small peasants, landless laborers, sharecroppers, servants, artisans, daily wage earners and
(b) The erstwhile privileged classes i.e., the clergy and the nobility were disappointed because all their privileges were taken away from them.

(i) The Jacobins was the most important political ckub of France
(ii) After the fall of Jacobin Government the wealthier middle classes seized power.
(iii) A new constitution was introduced which denied the vote to nonpropertied sections of society.
(iv) The constitution provided legislative authority to two elected legislative councls
(v) These then appointed a Directory, an executive made up of five members
(vi) There were constant clashes between the Directory and legislative councils resulting in political instability.
(vii) The legislative councils then sought to dismiss them
(viii) Political instability and dependance on the army culminated in the rise of military dictator Napoleon Bonaparte.