(i) Zwingli of Switzerland and John Calvin of Geneva followed Martin Luther.
(ii) Zwingli worked from Zurich and was against all forms of rituals.
(iii) John Calvin also opposed all forms of display of wealth.
(iv) Calvin codified his views in his book Institutes of Christian Religion.
(v) He believed that Church should be independent of political control on religious matters.
(vi) Calvinism became more popular

(i) Inquisition was an institution of the Catholic Church to deal with heresies beliefs in opposition to the Catholic faith.
(ii) Those found guilty and who recanted were awarded milder punishments and imprisonment.
(iii) Those who refused to recant were burnt at the stake

One of the most important outcomes of the conquest of Americas by the European colonial powers was the movement of plants, animals, technology, culture and strange diseases between the Americas and Europe or between the New World and the Old World. This is known as Columbian Exchange

(i) Martin Luther rejected the belief that ceremonies and penances would lead to salvation.
(ii) He argued that it was by faith alone that one could attain salvation.
(iii) The grace of God would be bestowed by the divine will alone and not by the deeds of the people.
(iv) Further, the Bible could be read and interpreted by all and not by the Church alone.
(v) Thus, he rejected the role of the Church as an intermediary between the individual and God.

(i) The invention of the printing press accelerated the process of modernisation.
(ii) Earlier, manuscripts were written by hand on animal skin called vellum.
(iii) Johannes Guttenberg invented the printing press in Germany in the middle of the fifteenth century.
(iv) The printing press enabled the production of multiple copies of a manuscript and they spread all over Western Europe.
(v) In less than fifty years after the invention of the Guttenberg printing press, about six million books had been printed.
(vi) The invention of printing press not only spread knowledge widely, but also promoted critical thinking.

Martin Luther, a monk of the Augustinian Order and a Professor of Theology in the University of Wittenberg. He was a devout Christian and a scrupulous follower of the Catholic faith.

Earlier, manuscripts were written by hand on animal skin called vellum. Only the privileged few could access them

This process of urbani sat ion started first in Italy because of its prosperous Mediterranean trade.

(a) Henry, the Navigator, was a central figure in the early days of the Portuguese Empire and in the 15th century European maritime discoveries and maritime trade. Henry, the Navigator of Portugal, laid the foundation for a long distance sea voyages. He established a navigation school to train sailors. In his school, he taught them how to use navigational instruments such as the mariner's compass and the astrolabe.
(b)Seafaring and adventurous spirit to explore, curiosity generated by the Renaissance and the travel accounts of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta all contributed to geographical discoveries. The primary factor was economic. When the Ottoman Turks blocked the land route between the East and the West, spices and other goods became costlier. This intensified the urge to discover a new sea route to Asia.
(c) Many natives died because of epidermic diseases brought by the colonizers. The most dangerous weapons the natives had to encounter were the deadly diseases against which they were defenceless. It led to the near annihilation of the natives in most parts of the Americas.
(d) The Trans-Atlantic Trade was a triangular trade. The European countries purchased slaves from Africa who were transported to America. In return they got sugar and other raw materials from America. The European countries profited immensely from this trade .

(a) The Italian city-states were centres of cultural activities since the fourteenth century. With the coming of the scholars and artists from Constantinople, there was a surge of enthusiasm and interest in studying classical literature and art of Greeks and Romans in the Italian city states.
This creative upsurge was reflected in their writings, art, architecture and music. This cultural florescence is known as the renaissance.
(b) 

(c) Renaissance paintings and sculptures were realistic and naturalistic. They improved over Medieval paintings and sculptures which were stylized, unrealistic and two dimensional. Renaissance portrayed natural landscapes, human anatomy, emotions and ideas
(d) Humanism laid emphasis on human dignity and nature. Renaissance humanism promoted the view that humans are endowed with attributes that are to be used to achieve greatness.

1. As a result of the discovery of new lands and new sea routes, the economic centre of Europe shifted from the Italian city states to spain and Portugal.
2. They brutally killed the natives in their conquest and the remaining were employed under harsh conditions in gold and silver mines, and in plantations.
3. Many natives also died because of epidemic diseases brought by the colonizers.
4. The native people faced the dangers of deadly diseses.
5. The natives had to encounter from these deadly diseases.
6. The introduction of sugarcane led to the establishment of sugarcane plantations in the Caribbean islands and South America.
7. The mass extinction of the native population led to the import of slaves from Africa. Africa became the centres of slave trade.
8. Geographical discoveries led to commercial revolution.
9. The seventeenth century witnessed the emergence of various East India companies.
10. They are English East India Company the Dutch East India Company and the French East India Company.
11. The Portuguese enforced its monopoly on the spice trade of East Indies.
12. The Spaniards established monopoly over the mining and transportation of gold and silver in its colonies in the New World.
13. The English East India Company had monopoly trade in India and amassed huge wealth.
14.  Thus, the chief feature of mercantilism was exploitation of the resources of the colonies for the benefit of the colonisers.
15. It represented an important stage in the development of modern capitalism.

(a) and (d) are correct

(a) and (b) are correct

(d) Council of Trent reemphasized the importance of ceremonies and significance of the mass.