(i) Parties contest elections. In most democracies, elections are fought mainly among the candidates put up by political parties.
(ii) Parties put forward their policies and programmes before the electorate to consider and choose.
(iii) Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country. Formally, laws are debated and passed in the legislature.
(iv) Parties form and run the governments.
(v) Those parties that lose in the elections play the role of the Opposition to the party or a group of coalition parties in power, by voicing different views and criticising the government for its failures or wrong policies.
(vi) Parties shape public opinion. They raise and highlight issues of importance.
(vii) Parties function as the useful link between people and the government machinery.

According to their height, clouds are classified into the following types
(i) High clouds (6 - 20 km Height)
(ii) Middle clouds (2.5 km - 6 km Height)
(iii) Low clouds (ground surface to 25 km height)
These major types of clouds are further divided into different types on the basis of shape and structure.
High clouds
Cirrus: Detached clouds in the form of white delicate fibrous silky filaments formed at the high sky (8000 meters to 12000 meters) are called Cirrus clouds. These clouds are dry and do not give rainfall.
Cirro-cumulus: White patched, sheet or layer like clouds composed of ice crystals.
Cirro-stratus: Smooth milky transparent whitish clouds composed of tiny ice crystals,
Middle clouds
Alto-stratus: Thin sheets of grey or blue coloured clouds in uniform appearance, consisting of frozen water droplets.
Alto-cumulus: clouds fitted closely together in parallel bands, called as 'Sheep clouds' or wool pack clouds.
Nimbostratus: These are clouds of dark colour very close to the ground surface associated with rain, snow or sleet.
Low clouds
Strato-cumulus: Grey or whitish layer of non-fibrous low clouds found in rounded patches at a height of 2500 to 3000 metres, associated with fair or clear weather.
Stratus: Dense, low lying fog-like clouds associated with rain or snow.
Cumulus: Dome-shaped with a flat base often resembling a cauliflower, associated with fair weather.
Cumulo-nimbus: Fluffy thick towering thunderstorm cloud capable of producing heavy rain, snow, hailstorm or tornadoes.

(i) India has a Parliamentary form of democracy.
(ii) The Indian Parliament comprises the elected representatives of people.
(iii) It makes the laws for the country.
(iv) The participation of people in the decision making and the consent of citizens are the two important elements of Parliamentary form of government in India.
(v) India is the largest democratic country in the world.
(vi) Democracy in India works on five basic principles.
(vii) These are sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic and republic.
(viii) Every citizen of India who is not less than 18 years of age can exercise their right to vote in India.
(ix) There is no discrimination based on a person's caste, creed, religion, gender and education when it comes to providing the right to vote.

Philosophy:
1. Lao Tze was the master archive keeper of Chou state. He was the founder of Taoism.
2. He argued that desire is the root cause of all evils.
Confucius:
1. Confucius was famous among the Chinese philosophers and a political reformer.
2. He insisted on cultivation of one's own personal life.
3. He said, "If personal life is cultivated, family life is regulated and once family life is regulated, national life is regulated."
Mencius:
1. Mencius was another well-known Chinese philosopher.
2. He travelled throughout China and offered his counsel to the rulers.
Literature:
1. Chinese poets and philosophers contributed to the development of Chinese civilisation.
2. Sun-Tzu, a military strategist, wrote the work called Art of War.
3. The Spring and Autumn Annals is the official chronicle of the state at the time.
4. The Yellow Emperor's Canon of Medicine is considered China's earliest written book on medicine.
5. It was codified during the time of Han Dynasty.

UNITY:
(i) Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were princes in their early life.
(ii) Both of them left the house at the age of 30 and wandered from place to place subjecting themselves to severe penance and got wisdom and enlightenment.
(iii) Both religion preached their teachings in the people's language.
(iv) These two religions denied blood sacrifice and animal sacrifice.
(v) Ahimsa is the basic faith followed by these two religions.
(vi) The two religions insist disciplined life, Right faith, and Right knowledge.
(vii) Later on these two religion split into two.
DIVERSITIES:
(i) Jainism believed that all the things had soul. But Buddhism did not accept it.
(ii) Mahavira's teachings are known as Triratnas and Buddha's teachings are known as eight fold path.
(iii) Jain texts are written in Sanskrit and Prakrit language But Buddhist text are written in Pali language.
(iv) Buddhism was patronised by the kings Ashoka and Kanishka. Jainism was not patronised by any king.
(v) Buddhism spread all over the world but Jainism did not spread to other countries.

GLACIERS:
(i) A Glacier is a large mass of ice that moves slowly over the land from its place is called River of ice.
(ii) A large mass of ice creates pressure at its bottom and generates heat due to this it melts and starts to move.
TYPES OF GLACIER:
(i) Glaciers are broadly divided into two types based on the place of occurrence such as continental glacier and valley glacier.
CONTINENTAL GLACIER:
(i) This sheets of ice that covers vast areas of a continent is called continental Glacier.
VALLEY GLACIERS:
(i) The glacier which takes its origin from a snow covered mountain range is known Valley Glacier.

The outer surface and inner core of the Earth are totally different in their nature and structure. The structure of the Earth's interior is divided into three layers namely the crust, the mantle and the core.
Crust: Crust is the outer layer of the Earth, where we live. It is the skin of our Earth, which ranges between 5 to 30 km. It is the solid and rigid layer of the Earth. The thickness of the crust is greater below the continents than the ocean floor. The crust is classified as continental crust and oceanic crust. The major elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is termed as SIAL.
Mantle: The interior part beneath the crust is called mantle, which is about 2,900 km thick. The major elements of the mantle are Silica (Si) and Magnesium (Mg) and hence it is also termed as SIMA. In the upper part of the mantle. the rock remains solid, whereas, in the lower part of the mantle, rocks are in molten form. This molten rock inside the Earth is called 'magma'.
Core: The core is the innermost and hottest layer of the Earth which lies below the mantle. It is composed mainly of Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe). Hence it is called NIFE.
The core is divided into Solid inner core and Liquid outer core. The presence of large quantities of iron in the core is responsible for the Earth's gravitational force. As the Earth rotates on its axis, the liquid outer core spins over the solid inner core and generates the Earth's magnetic field. This is responsible for the functioning of the magnetic compass. Due to high pressure, the materials in the inner core are unable to move and hence remain solid.

AGRICULTURE:
1. The people in megalithic practiced agriculture, domesticated cattle and sheep.
2. Megalithic sites are found nearby rivers and tanks. In the deltaic regions.
3. Irrigation as a technology had developed.
4. Irrigation management developed in this period.
5. Millets and rice were cultivated.
POTTERY:
1. Pottery was made with hand or wheels.
2. people used the black and red colour to make black ware and red ware pottery.
3. The black and red ware pottery has a black inside and a red outside, with lustrous surfaces.
4. Potteries were used for cooking, storage and dining purposes.
METAL TOOLS:
1. The Megalithic burials have abundant iron objects placed in the burials as grave goods.
2. Weapons such as swords and daggers, axes, chisels, lamps and tripod stands are also found.
3. The Iron tools were used for agriculture, hunting, gathering and in battles.
4. Bronze bowls, bronze mirrors and bell have been found.