(i) The Directory was short lived and was replaced by the Consulate with Napoleon as the first Consul.
(ii) This Consulate was abolished by Napoleon Bonaparte, who later crowned himself as the Emperor of France.

(i) There was a struggle for power between the various groups, chiefly between the Girondins and the Jacobins.
(ii) The Convention, dominated by the Jacobins, appointed two committees the Committees of Public Welfare and Public Safety with wide powers.
(iii) In September 1793, the Convention passed the Law of Suspects, and under that law, after a month later twenty two Girondins were tried by the Revolutionary Tribunal and sentenced to death.
(iv) 'Reign of Terror' began with this incident.

(i) The representation of the third Estate, that is commons, had refused either to bow to the nobles or to obey the orders of the King.
(ii) They proclaimed themselves a National Assembly and gathering on a tennis court after the King had cleared them out of their hall.
(iii) They swore on oath, Tennis court Oath, not to disperse until the king gave them a constitution.
(iv) Thus began the revolution of 1789 in France

(i) Americans were divided among themselves as Patriots and Loyalists.
(ii) About two-thirds of the people who supported the war were Patriots.
(iii) The Patriots fought for independence and the Loyalists supported the British.
(iv) The Patriots were better organized than the loyalists.

(i) In January 1776, an anonymous pamphlet under the title Common Sense was published.
(ii) It was authored by Thomas Paine who had recently migrated to America from England.
(iii) It attacked the allegiance to the Crown and called for complete independence.
(iv) George Washington remarked, "Common Sense is working a powerful change in the minds of men."

(i) The French Revolution had many lasting results.
(ii) It marked the end of the system of absolute monarchy in France.
(iii) All feudal privileges were abolished and the power of clergy was curbed.
(iv) The Revolution united the people of different sections and paved the way for the enhanced power of the state.
(v) It also led to the growth of feelings of nationalism and the emergence of an assertive middle class.
(vi) Revolution upheld the theory of people's sovereignty and laid the foundation for the birth of liberal constitutional governments in Europe.
(vii) Liberty, equality, and fraternity became the watchwords of freedom-loving people all over the world.
(viii) It inspired many latter-day political movements for the establishment of liberal democracy in Europe and elsewhere.

(i) For the first time a colonial power was overthrown by the colonies, leading to the establishment of a republican government in the United States.
(ii) The Declaration of Independence of 1776 stated that, "all men are born equal." But in reality America had to fight a bitter civil war in the succeeding century to abolish slavery.
(iii) By 1777 nearly all the colonies had a written constitution. These constitutions protected individual rights, freedom of press and freedom of religion. The church and the state were separated
(iv) The intellectuals of the time believed that the republican state was the only political structure in which individuals could preserve their basic freedom including property and political rights.
(v) The conception of people's right to a government of their choice encouraged the Latin American revolutionaries to strive for the overthrow of the Spanish empire in South America.
(vi) Mirabeau quoted the Declaration of Independence with enthusiasm during the French Revolution.
(vii) Lafayette, who fought the British on Washington's side through to the conclusive battle at Yorktown in 1781, later during the French Revolution served the French National Guard as its Commander

(i) Initially the colonies did not begin fighting for the sake of independence. Their grievances were taxation and restrictions on trade.
(ii) George Washington was the Commander-in-Chief of the colonies and their battle cry was 'No Taxation without Representation'.
(iii) On 5 September 1774, the first Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. The Congress adopted a Declaration of American Rights.
(iv) The Battle of Bunker Hill signaled the outbreak of the American war of Independence.
(v) The second Continental Congress met on 10 May 1775 at Philadelphia. It organised the army gathered around Boston as the continental army and placed it under the command of George Washington.
(vi) As the war progressed, the Continental Congress assumed the functions of government. A committee was formed to explore the possibility of foreign aid.
(vii) On 17 June 1775 the Battle of Bunker Hill, the first major battle was fought in Massachusetts. Soon the British forces retreated from Boston.
(viii) On June 7, 1776 Richard Henry Lee of Virginia moved a resolution for independence.
(ix) After much debate the Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted by the Congress on July 4, 1776. This day is celebrated by the Americans as Independence Day.