Excommunication and Interdict were the two instruments used against those who defied the church.

(i) The king, supposed to represent God on earth was at the head of the feudal regime.
(ii) Immediately after him were the great nobles, known as dukes, counts, earls.
(iii) The king gives the land to the landlords.
(iv) The landlords get the land and accept to fight for the king.
(v) The landlords divide the land and distribute it to the viscounts or barons.
(vi) Last in this order were the knights, whose fiefs could not be divided.
(vii) At the bottom were the villeins or serfs.

(i) Crusades ended the feudal relations.
(ii) Many of the nobles who went to East to take part in the Crusades either stayed too long a period or did not return.
(iii) The serfs took advantage of their absence to break away from their bondage to the soil.
(iv) Increasing demand for products of the east led to expansion of trade.
(v) Venice, Genoa, and Pisa emerged as important commercial centres in the mediterranean region.
(vi) Constantinople ceased to be the middleman in the trade between the East and the West.
(vii) The elimination of powerful nobles had its influence in strengthening the monarchy in France and England. One notable outcome of Crusades was the loss of prestige suffered by Pope and Papacy.

(i) Arabs were more interested in scholarly pursuits.
(ii) They had a scientific spirit of inquiry.
(iii) In some subjects like medicine and mathematics, they learnt much from India.
(iv) Many Arab students went to Takshashila, which was still a great university for specialized medicine.
(v) Sanskrit books on medicine and other subjects were translated into Arabic.
(vi) In medicine and surgery, Arab physicians and surgeons earned a great reputation.

(i) Between 8^th and 7^th centuries BC(BCE) the warring states in China built defensive walls to protect themselves from enemies from the north.
(ii) During Qin dynasty the separated walls were connected and consequently the wall.
(iv) This wall is considered to be one of the wonders of the world, stretched from east to west for about 5000 kilometres.
(v) Served to keep nomadic tribes out. Now it is 6700 kilometers in length.

(i) Feudalism was born out of chaos and disorder in the society.
(ii) Under Feudalism the king was the head of the feudal regime.
(iii) Immediately after him were the great nobles, known as dukes, counts, earls.
(iv) The relationship was one of a vassal.
(v) The nobles in turn had vassals of their own, dividing and distributing their fief to lesser nobles called viscounts or barons.
(vi) Last in this order were the knights, whose fiefs cannot be divided.
(vii) At the bottom were the villeins or serfs.
(viii) In the feudal system which centred around vassalage, there was no idea of equality or freedom.
(ix) There were only rights and obligations.
(x) The Bishops, Abbots and Cardinals and the Church came under this socio-political structure.
(xi) The nobility and the clergy did not do any physical work only peasants and artisans were taxed.
(xii) The new class of traders formed guilds, became wealthy enough to defy even the nobles and the kings.
(xiii) This development led to the end of Feudalism.

(i) Mongols were nomads.
(ii) They came into Europe from the steppes of Asiatic Russia.
(iii) They were herdsmen.
(iv) They were experts in warfare.
(v) Their remarkable leader was Chengiz Khan.