Excommunication and Interdict were the two instruments used against those who defied the church.

(i) The king, supposed to represent God on earth was at the head of the feudal regime.
(ii) Immediately after him were the great nobles, known as dukes, counts, earls.
(iii) The king gives the land to the land lords.
(iv) The land lords get the land and accept to fight for the king.
(v) The land lords divide the land and distribute it to the viscounts or barons.
(vi) Last in this order were the knights, whose fiefs could not be divided.
(vii) At the bottom were the villeins or serfs.

(i) Crusades ended the feudal relations.
(ii) Many of the nobles who went to East to take part in the Crusades either stayed too long a period or did not return.
(iii) The serfs took advantage of their absence to break away from their bondage to the soil.
(iv) Increasing demand for products of the east Ied to expansion of trade.
(v) Venice, Genoa, and Pisa emerged as important commercial centres in the mediterranean region.
(vi) Constantinople ceased to be the middle man in the trade between the East and the West.
(vii) The elemination of powerful nobles had its influence in strengthening the monarchy in France and England. One notable outcome of Crusades was the loss of prestige suffered by Pope and Papacy.

(i) Arabs were more interested in scholarly pursuits.
(ii) They had a scientific spirit of inquiry.
(iii) In some subjects like medicine and mathematics, they learnt much from India.
(iv) Many Arab students went to Takshashila, which was still a great university for specialized medicine.
(v) Sanskrit books on medicine and other subjects were translated into Arabic.
(vi) In medicine and surgery, Arab physicians and surgeons earned a great reputation.

(i) Between 8^th and 7^th centuries BC(BCE) the warring states in China built defensive walls to protect themselves from enemies from the north.
(ii) During Chin dynasty the separated walls were connected and consequently the wall.
(iv) This wall is considered to be one of the wonders of the world, stretched from east to west for about 5000 kilometres.
(v) Served to keep nomadic tribes out. Now it is 6700 kilometers in length.

(i) Christianity underwent many significant developments during the later Middle Ages.
(ii) The most important were in matters of doctrine and religious practices.
(iii) New elements were included in Christian theology like theory of priesthood and the theory of sacraments.
(iv) Excommunication and Interdict were the two instruments used against those who defied the Church.

(i) Mongols were nomads.
(ii) They came into Europe from the steppers of Asiatic Russia.
(iii) They were herdsmen.
(iv) They were experts in warfare.
(v) Their remarkable leader was Chengiz Khan.

(i) Japan's name was given by a Chinese Emperor.
(ii) In a message sent by the Chinese Emperor, the Emperor of Japan was addressed as Tai- Nyih-Pung-Kok, meaning Great Sun-Rise-Kingdom.
(iii) The Japanese thought that this sounded better than Yamato.
(iv) So they began calling their country "Dai Nippon"- the land of the Rising Sun.
(v) Nippon became Japan.

MONGOLS:
1. Mongols were nomads. They came into Europe from the Steppes of Asiatic Russia.
2. They were herdsmen.
3. The Mongols were experts in warfare and produced a remarkable chief, Chengiz Khan.
MONGOLS RULE IN CHINA:
1. After the end of Sung dynasty the Mongols established their rule in the name of Yuan dynasty
2. The Mongols, who over ran Persia and the whole of Central Asia, did not spare China either.
3. Mangu Khan became the Great Khan in 1252 who appointed Kublai Khan the Governor of China.
4. The Mongol presence from one end of Eurasia to the other played a key role in spreading Chinese technological advances to the less developed societies in the west.
5. Though the Mongol court in Beijing impressed a foreigner like Marco polo, the poverty of peasantry continued.
6. Finally, the leader of "Red Turbans" Chu Yuan Chang took the Mongol capital Beijing and proclaimed himself emperor in 1369.

(i) Out of the fight between two Daimyo chief families, the Tara and the Minamota, Yoritomo emerged successful.
(ii) The emperor gave him the high sounding title of Sei-i-tai-Shogun.
(iii) This title meant Barbarian-subduing-Great-General.
(iv) The title carried full power to govern hereditarily.
(v) The Shogun became the real ruler. In this way began the rule of Shogunate.
(vi) Yoritomo established his military capital at Kamakura .
(vii) Therefore, the first Shogunate is called the Kamakura Shogunate.
(viii) Samurai or warriors formed the feudal military government.
(ix) The Ashikaga Shogunate replaced them and ruled for nearly 235 years. But this was a period of conflict and war.
(x) Three men Borbunaga, a Daimyo or noble, Hideyoshi, a peasant and Tokugawa Iyeyasu, one of the distinguished nobles ultimately rescued Japan from civil war.
(xi) By the end of 16th century, the whole of Japan was again united.