John Middleton (in Source D) contrary to the peasant is arguing in favour of, and advantages of enclosure of common lands.
(i) He admits enclosures do not benefit the farmer as do the open fields.
(ii) He states the farmer is bound, has no means and enjoys no freedom.
(iii) The farmer cannot make investments because of his minimum ability, so cannot increase productivity or effect change in prices.
(iv) He argues the farmer is like a horse in a team. He is a follower with no will of his own. He does what the rest do.

(i) Need not greed should be the guarding principle.
(ii) Presentation not destruction.
(iii) Sustainable development.
(iv) Involvement of local people.
(v) Deterrents 'like strict laws'
(vi) Use of social media for awareness campaigns.
(v) Inculcating values of being responsible citizens among people.

The impact of opium trade on China was negative.
(a) Chinese became addicted to opium.
(b) People of all classes took to the during. There were some four million opium smokers in China in 1839.
(c) Foreign traders began meddling in local politics.
(d) Reversed the balance of trade in China in Britains favour.

China

The new technology created grounds for the Great Agrarian Depression of the 1930's
(i) The new technology led to such rapid expansion of production of wheat during the war and post war years that there was a large surplus.
(ii) Once the war ended, unsold stocks piled up and storehouse overflowed with grain and vast amounts of corn.
(iii) With reduced demand, farmers had no alternative but to use wheat and corn as animal feed.
(iv) Excess stocks, reduced wheat prices and collapse of export market all created grounds for the Great Agrarian Depression of the 1930s that ruined farmers everywhere.

(i) The new ploughs were devised locally.
(ii) Some of them were 12 feet long.
(iii) Their front rested on small wheels. At the rear was a handle with which the ploughman guided the plough.
(iv) The plough was hitched on to six yokes of oxen or horses.

Thomas Jefferson became the President of USA in 1800.

(i) Enclosure laws favored the landlords at the expense of the poor. When fences came up, enclosed lands became exclusive property of one land owner.
(ii) Poor farmers lost grazing rights and other customary rights, e.g, of collecting firewood from forests or apples and berries or hunt small 'animals for meat. Everything belonged to the landlords and had a price, which they could not afford.
(iii) The poor were deprived of ways to supplement their meagre income and means to tide over periods of crises.
(iv) Earlier labourers lived within the compounds of the landowners and availed of certain facilities. But with enclosures, labourers were reduced to the status of wage-earners and were employed during harvest time.
(v) Deprived of their rights and driven off the land they tramped in search of work. From Midlands, they moved to southern England. This region was intensively cultivated and there was demand for agricultural labourers. But nowhere could the poor find secure jobs. Work of the poor became insecure and income unstable.
(vi) With enclosures came threshing machines. These machines resulted in further displacement of labour. Wages became low and the number of poor unemployed large.

Foodgrains production grew rapidly in the 19th century England because:
(i) New Lands: Enclosures helped bring new lands under cultivation. Lands which earlier constituted pasture lands, open fields, forests commons, marshes were turned to agricultural fields.
(ii) Simple Innovations: Farmers started using simple innovation on a more regular basis. Crops like turnip and clover which helped restore depleted nitrogen content of the soil and made soil more fertile were regularly cultivated. Turnip was also a good fodder crop relished by cattle.
(iii) Crop Rotation; Use of crop rotation technique on a regular basis improved soil and fertility and increased foodgrain production.
(iv) Threshing Machines: The use of threshing machines improved efficiency and reduced labour cost.

(i) War between England and France disrupted trade and import of foodgrains from Europe. The prices of foodgrains in England skyrocketed.
(ii) Disruption of trade due to war and increased prices of foodgrains encouraged landowners to enclose land and enlarge area under grain cultivation.
(iii) Lanlords sliced up pasture lands, carved up open fields, cut up forest commons, took over marshes and turned larger and larger areas into agricultural fields.
(iv) Farmers began using simple innovations like crop rotation and planting turnip and cloves to restore soil fertility to increase food production.
(v) The profit from enclosed lands under grain production enriched landowners. These landowners pressurised the Parliament to pass enclosure Acts legalising enclosures.

The early enclosures were not supported by the state but by mid-18th century a number of enclosure acts, which culminated in the General Enclosure Act of 1801, was passed legalising enclosures.

(i) Before the late 18th century large parts of the English countryside were open. It was not partitioned into enclosed fields, privately owned by landlords.
(ii) Land around villages was divided into strips of varying quality. At the beginning of each year a mix of good and bad land was allotted to the villagers to cultivate. These strips of land which the villagers cultivated were called 'open fields'.
(iii) Land beyond the strips was called commons land. It was called 'commons' because all villagers had free access to it -- to graze their cattle, collect fuel wood, berries, fruits, fishing in the ponds and even hunt for small catch.
(iv) For the poor the common land was very important for survival. It helped supplement their meagre income, sustained their cattle and helped them tide over bad times, when crops failed.

(i) The British insisted on farmers growing in India to balance their trade with China. The British could buy tea from China only by paying in bullion. This resulted in outflow of treasure. Opium was one commodity which the British could sell and persuade the Chinese to buy. Its addictive properties in China. Therefore, the Indian farmers were forced to cultivate opium and sell at a cheap price. This was then illegally smuggled into China and sold at a high price.
(ii) Opium grown in India helped the British to reverse the unfavourable balance of payment with China.
(iii) Opium trade resulted in two Opium Wars.
(iv) These wars forced China to open her territories to foreign trade.

The impact of westward expansion of white settlers in the USA were:
(i) The white settlers first settled in the Appalachian plateau from where they moved to the Mississippi valley, and after 1860s swept in the Great Plains across the river Mississippi. Settled agriculture especially grain production was undertaken on an extensive scale largely at the expense of grasslands and forests. Forests were slashed and burnt, stumps pulled out and land cleared for cultivation.
(ii) Agrarian expansion led to displacement of local tribes. They were driven beyond the river Mississippi and later further West.
(iii) In the late 19th century, American urban population expanded rapidly and the export market grew. During the world war the world market boomed, since Russian supplies were cut-off due to the Russian Revolution. The spread of railways made it easy to transport grain from wheat producing regions for export to the east coast. By 1919, nearly 74 million acres of land was under wheat cultivation in America. The USA came to dominate the world"1harket in agricultural produce and came to be called the bread ba~ket of the world.
(iv) The westward expansion provided the impetus for development of new technologies in agriculture, to meet the requirements of new habitats and land.
(v) Ploughs were modified, disk ploughs, tractors and the mechanical reaper were invented.
The westward expansion thus led to the US emerging as the bread basket of the world and to increased mechanisation of agriculture.

(i) The threshing machines opposed by the poor in England because landowners tried to cut wages and the number of workmen they employed. They brought a bad time for the poor and compelled the poor unemployed working class to tramp from village to village in order to search for job and livelihood.
(ii) This problem worsened when soldiers returned to villages after the Napoleonic wars and needed jobs.