One of the most important outcomes of the conquest of Americas by the European colonial powers was the movement of plants, animals, technology, culture and strange diseases between the Americas and Europe or between the New World and the Old World. This is known as Columbian Exchange

(i) The Protestant reformation posed a threat to the Catholic Church.
(ii) In order to meet the challenge, Pope Paul III and his successors introduced a number of rigorous reforms in the Church. They dealt with corruption severely and stopped the sale of offices.
(iii) The Council of Trent reemphasized the importance of ceremonies and the significance of the mass.
(iv) Further, it revitalized the Inquisition to deal with opposition to the Church.
(v) It also gave official sanction to the Society of Jesus.
(vi) This reformation of the Catholic Church from within is known as Counter Reformation.

(i) Martin Luther rejected the belief that ceremonies and penances would lead to salvation.
(ii) He argued that it was by faith alone that one could attain salvation.
(iii) The grace of God would be bestowed by the divine will alone and not by the deeds of the people.
(iv) Further, the Bible could be read and interpreted by all and not by the Church alone.
(v) Thus, he rejected the role of the Church as an intermediary between the individual and God.

(i) Renaissance most important contribution was the idea of humanism.
(ii) It marked a definite shift towards individualism, secularism and nationalism.
(iii) The introduction and practice of writing in the vernacular language enriched the growth of vernacular languages.
(iii) Renaissance made a beginning in criticizing the corrupt and wordly practices of the Church.
(iv) The curiosity kindled by the renaissance played a decisive role in the discovery of new Iand routes and remapping of the world.
(v) The spirit of adventurism and quest for knowledge impelled the mariners to sail into the high seas.

(i) The invention of the printing press accelerated the process of modernisation.
(ii) Earlier, manuscripts were written by hand on animal skin called vellum.
(iii) Johannes Guttenberg invented the printing press in Germany in the middle of the fifteenth century.
(iv) The printing press enabled the production of multiple copies of a manuscript and they spread all over Western Europe.
(v) In less than fifty years after the invention of the Guttenberg printing press, about six million books had been printed.
(vi) The invention of printing press not only spread knowledge widely, but also promoted critical thinking.