Characteristics of Good governance
(a) Participation
(b) Rule of Law
(c) Transparency
(d) Responsiveness
(e) Consensus Orientation
(f) Equity
(g) Effectiveness And Efficiency
(h) Accountability

(i) The percentage of migrants was 37 percent in the country.
(ii) It was at a much higher rate in Tamil Nadu at 43 percent.

The functions of the Panchayat Union are:
(i) Supply of drinking water
(ii) Maintenance of Village Health Centres
(iii) Maintenance of the roads
(iv) Establishment of Maternity Homes
(v) Establishment of Public fair
(vi) Establishment of Veterinary hospitals
(vii) Maintenance of Social forest
(viii) Repairing of Primary School buildings

(i) Tamil Nadu has the highest GDP in India according to 2017
(ii) Tamil Nadu tops in food grain production in 2015 - 2016 Prime Minister presented the Krishi Karman award to Tamil Nadu.
(iii) Mettur dam has the highest storage of water in Tamilnadu for agricultural Purpose.

(i) Remote sensing can be either passive or active.
(ii) Active systems emit their own source of light energy such as RADAR:
(iii) Passive systems depend on sunlight as energy source

Population change refers to an increase or decrease in the population of an area influenced by the number of births, deaths and migration.

(i) In 1886 the possessions of the Sultan of Zanzibar were divided into British and German spheres of influence.
(ii) In 1895, the British government assumed authority and formed the East African protectorate in Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar.
(iii) The ruler of Uganda was very weak and inefficient and the British established their indirect rule.
(iv) In German East Africa, the Africans were economically exploited leading to a number of rebellions. The most serious was the Maji-Maji rebellion.

(i) In India, Labour day was first celebrated on May 1, 1923 in Chennai.
(ii) The celebrations were organised by the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan, founded by M. Singaravelu.
(iii) He was one of the early leaders of the Communist Party of India.

(i) The European planters, chiefly of tobacco, in the southern states Virginia, Carolinas and Georgia needed workers to work in the plantations.
(ii) The Native Americans resisted attempts to make them work in the plantations.
(iii) Thus the Europeans planters were in search of labour Africa.
(iv) The innocent people of Africa were captured in man-hunts and sent across the seas in a cruel and inhuman manner.

(i) By the end of the nineteenth century, France had became prominent for its automobiles.
(ii) In 1898 Louis Renault built the quadricycle. He began to produce in large quantities under his company the Societe Renault Freres (Company Renault Brothers).

(i) The Zulu tribe was known for its strong fighting spirit.
(ii) They were represented by renowned warriors like Shaka Zulu.
(iii) Shaka Zulu played a prominent role in building the largest Zulu nation in South-Eastern Africa. 
(iv) British troops invaded Zulu territory and divided it into thirteen chiefdoms.
(v) The Zulus never regained their independence and they had to fight against deeply entrenched racism in South Africa for about a century.

(i) A map is the basic tool of a geographer.
(ii) It illustrates the earth's surface clearly and effectively through a combination of drawings, words and symbols.
(iii) Thus, maps form an integral part of teaching geography.
(iv) A map is a location guide.

The village panchayats levy the following taxes such as, Property tax, Professional tax, House tax, Taxes on connecting drinking water, Land tax and Taxes levied on shops.

The crop cultivation depends on the amount of land being cultivated, productivity of crops, source of water weather, rainfall etc.

(i) Shih Huang Ti crushed all local rulers and established a strong central government.
(ii) However, uprisings of the peasantry, unlike in other cultures, occurred again and again in China.
(iii) Such uprisings led to the collapse of Chin dynasty

(i) Patricians were Aristocrats in the Roman Socity Senators and Consuls protected the interests of Patricians.
(ii) Plebeians were chronically in debt and had to eventually lose their land to the Patricians.

(i) Classical World comprises ancient Greece and Rome.
(ii) Classical Age refers to the inter-locking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, known as Graeco- Roman World

(i) The Europeans came to India primarily in search of spices.
(ii) But soon there was an explosion in the demand for Indian textiles in the European markets, often referred to as the 'Indian craze' .
(iii) This led to a significant expansion of textile production in India.

(i) The impact of Muslim rule was felt during the reign of Alauddin Khalj i.
(ii) He sent military campaigns to south under his commander Malik Kafur.
(iii) The primary objective was to plunder the wealth, rather than to expand his territory.
(iv) Devagiri (near Aurangabad) was captured by Alauddin Khalji. He renamed it as Daulatabad.
(v) It was the second stronghold of his growing kingdom.

This acted as a catalyst for the birth of Renaissance. It also led to the discovery of new land routes.

(i) Inquisition was an institution of the Catholic Church to deal with heresies beliefs in opposition to the Catholic faith.
(ii) Those found guilty and who recanted were awarded milder punishments and imprisonment.
(iii) Those who refused to recant were burnt at the stake

An ecological region that has lost more than 70% of its original habitat is considered a hot spot.

A major portion of the savings in banks are used for the development of industries, economic growth and various development schemes for the welfare of the poor

(i) SHRC refers State Human Rights Commission.
(ii) Every state in India has a State Human Rights Commission established in accordance with the power conferred on the state under section 210f the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
(iii) The protection and promotion of human rights constitute the principal concern of the Commission.

(i) The earth consists of four spheres
(ii) They are a) Lithosphere,
b) Atmosphere,
c) Hydrosphere and
d) Biosphere

(i) It refers to equality before law and equal protection of law.
(ii) There was a sbong voice against this inhuman practice among workers for a long time.
(iii) Women's rights under the constitution of India mainly includes equality, dignity and freedom from discrimination. Additionally, India has various statutes governing the rights
of women.

(i) Currency is the medium of exchange in a country.
(ii) The Indian currency is called the Indian Rupee.
(iii) In a country the foreign currency is called foreign exchange.
(iv) Purchasing capacity of all currencies in the world are compared using the US dollar as the standard currency.
(v) This value differs from country to country.
(vi) Most of the international trade transactions are carried out in.US dollar.

(i) Terrestrial biomes is a group ofliving organisms that live and interact with one another on land.
(ii) They are mainly determined by temperature and rainfall.
(iii) Some of the major terrestrial biomes of the world are
a. Tropical Forest Biomes
b. Tropical Savanna Biomes
c. Desert Biomes
d. Temperate Grassland Biomes and
e. Tundra Biomes

(i) The degree of concentration of salts in the sea water is called salinity.
(ii) It is usually expressed in terms of parts per thousand (ppt or %0).
(iii) Salinity varies both horizontally and vertically.
(iv) The influence of temperature on ocean salinity depends upon the heating up of the surface water, which varies from tropics to polar regions

Hydrosphere consists of water in various forms found on the earth. It is held on land as glaciers, ice caps, ground water, river, lakes and also as the water vapour in air.

(i) Crusades ended the feudal relations.
(ii) Many of the nobles who went to East to take part in the Crusades either stayed too long a period or did not return.
(iii) The serfs took advantage of their absence to break away from their bondage to the soil.
(iv) Increasing demand for products of the east Ied to expansion of trade.
(v) Venice, Genoa, and Pisa emerged as important commercial centres in the mediterranean region.
(vi) Constantinople ceased to be the middle man in the trade between the East and the West.
(vii) The elemination of powerful nobles had its influence in strengthening the monarchy in France and England. One notable outcome of Crusades was the loss of prestige suffered by Pope and Papacy.

The Ring of Fire is a ring of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean. These volcanoes result from subduction of oceanic plates beneath lighter continental plates, A subduction zone is a place where one plate of oceanic lithosphere is shoved under another plate. As it is shoved into the hotter mantle the plate heats up. The addition of volatiles such as water to the hot overlying mantle causes partial melting and the production of magma. This magma rises up through the over-lying plate to erupt at the surface. Hence, the Pacific Ring of Fire is most seismically and volcanically active.

(i) Transverse Dunes are asymmetrical in shape.
(ii) They are formed by alternate slow and fast winds that blow from the same direction

If our thinking turns towards progress and about the ways to achieve the many goals for progress, it leads to development.

(i) Coastal zone is exposed to natural forces including cyclones and Tsunamis.
(ii) Cuddalore and Nagapattinam are situated on the Sea-Shore.
(iii) Cuddalore and Nagapattinam are vulnerable to storms.
(iv) During Summer Bay of Bengal subject to intense heat cause to raise the humid and unstable air masses that produce cyclone.

Those who are engaged in economic activities, in whatever capacity -high (or) low are called employees.

Merits:
(i) Indirect elections are less expensive.
(ii) It is more suited to elections in large countries.
Demerits:
(i) If the number of voters is very small, there exists the possibility of corruption, bribery, horse trading and other unfair activities.
(ii) It is less democratic because people do not have a direct opportunity to elect, but they instead do it through their representatives. So, this may not reflect the true will of the people.

(i) Democracy is a form of government that allows people to choose their rulers.
(ii) Only leaders elected by people should rule the country.
(iii) People have freedom to express views, freedom to organise and freedom to protest.

(i) Monastries and temples served the purpose of imparting education.
(ii) Nalanda was a great monastery built by the Magadha Empire.
(iii) Educational centres offered Buddhist and Vedic literature, logic, grammar, medicine, philosophy and astronomy.
(iv) Even the science of war was taught.
(v) Nalanda became the most renowned seat of learning in course of time.

(i) The internal processes generate heat and eject materials from deep below the Earth's crust.
(ii) Internal radio activity in the principal source of power for this process.

A planned town with brick architecture and, a proper layout. Urban centres have a larger population involved in non-agrarian, commercial and political occupations. Various industrial activities are seen in these towns.

(i) The lithic tool - making tradition of the Levalloisian belonged to this period.
(ii) Levalloisian tools are the implements made after preparing the core.
(iii) These tools are found in Europe and Central and Western Asia.
(iv) The Levalloisian tools are the implements made after preparing the core. It was named after the town of Levallois in France.

As one of the oldest civilisations, the Egyptian civilisation is known for its monumental architecture, art, sciences and crafts at a very early age.

The three principles of Jainism are known as Tri-ratnas. They are Right faith, Right knowledge, Right action.

1. Agriculture was one of the main soures of subsistence.
2. Both wet and dry land farming were practiced.
3. In the riverine and tank-irrigated areas, paddy was cultivated.
4. Millets were cultivated in dry lands.

The erosional landforms of wind: Mushroom rocks, Inselbergs and Yardangs
The Depositional Landforms of wind: Sand dunes, Barchans and loess.

(i) Guptadham caves - Western Bihar
(ii) Pandav caves Pachmuri Madhya Pradesh
(iii) Kutumsar - Bastar district in Chattisgarh
(iv) Borra caves of Visakhapatnam - Andhra Pradesh

Biological weathering occurs due to the penetration and expansion of plant roofs, earth worms, burrowing animals (rabbits, rats) and same human activities.

(i) Hammurabi Code is an important legal document that specifies the laws related to various crimes.
(ii) It has 282 provisions specifying cases related to family rights, trade, slavery, taxes and wages.
(iii) It is carved on a stone, which portrays Hammurabi as receiving the code from the Sun god Shamash.
(iv) It was a compilation of old laws based on retributive principles.
(v) The 'eye for eye' and 'tooth for tooth' form of justice is used in the Hammurabi Code.

1. In the course of evolution, humans became conscious and knowledgeable.
2. They turned curious and began to think and ask questions.
3. At first, they considered nature as God.
4. They worshipped sun, moon and various natural forces about which they developed their own understanding.

a)

b)

 

a) Pacific Ring of fire: It is a major area and an arc in the_basin of the Pacific ocean where many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur.

(b) Earthquake-prone zones (any two): Turkey, Indonesia

(c) Locate any two active volcanoes of the world: Hawaii-, Mount Fuji

(d) Himalayas and Alps ranges

De-merits of unitary form of government
(i) It is not suitable for big countries.
(ii) The central government will have to tackle so many complex problems that lead to administrative delay.
(iii) The central government will not concentrate on local problems; local interest and initiative.
(iv) The concentration of powers may pave way for the despotism of the central government.

(i) You should continue using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station for updated emergency information.
(ii) Check yourself for injuries and get first aid if necessary before helping injured or trapped persons.
(iii) If someone needs to be rescued, call professionals with the right equipment to help.
(iv) Help people who require special assistance Infants, elderly people, those without transportation, large families who may need additional help in an emergency situation, people with disabilities, and the people who care for them.
(v) Stay out of a building if water remains around it. Tsunami water, like floodwater, can undermine foundations, causing buildings to sink, floors to crack, or walls to collapse.
(vi) Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or hear a blowing or hissing noise, open a window and get everyone outside quickly.

(i) Unitary / Federal
(ii) Written constitution / unwritten constitution
(iii) Flexible / Rigid

(i) NNP - Net National Product
(ii) PCI - Per Capita Income

(i) Development refers to the progress of a particular field or a particular person.
(ii) The economic progress of a country is known as economic development.
(iii) Development refers to the improvement in quality of life such as higher income, better education, better health and nutrition less poverty and more equal opportunity.

(i) A political party is an organisation formed by a group of people with a certain ideology and agenda to contest elections and hold power in the government.
(ii) A political party has three components: a leader, active members and the followers.

1. The Indus civilisation and its urban features started declining from about 1900 BC.
2. Charges in climate, decline of the trade with Mesopotamia and drying up or flooding of the river Indus. foreign invasion were some of the reasons attributed to the collapse of this civilisation and for the migration of people on the southern and eastern directions.
3. It did not completely disappear.
4. It continued as rural culture.

Rules to Ensure Road Safety for chlldren
It is impportant for children to know about road safety rules and regulatioins. Here are a few
basic road safety rules for children.
i) Know Your Signals
ii) Stop, Look and Cross
iii) Pay Attention - Listen
iv) Don't Run on Roads
v) Always Use Sidewalks
vi) Never Stick Hands outside the Vehicle
vii) Never cross Road at Bends
viii) Don't Rush.

The different factors contribute to road accident are,
i) Drivers: Over speeding, rash driving, violation of rules, failure to understand signs, fatigue, alcohol.
ii) Pedestrians: Carelessness, illiteracy, crossing at wrong places, jaywalkers.
iii) Passengers: Projecting their body parts outside vehicles, talking to drivers, alighting and boarding vehicles from the wrong side, travelling on footboards, catching a running bus etc.,
iv) Vehicles: Failure of brakes or steering, tyre burst, insufficient headlights, overloading.
v) Road Conditions: Potholes, damaged roads, eroded roads merging of rural roads with highways and illegal speed breakers.
vi) Weather conditions: Fog, snow, heavy rainfall, wind storms, hail storms. 

Parliamentary form of Government
(i) The parliamentary system of government is the one in which the executive is responsible to the legislature for its policies and acts.
(ii) It is also known as cabinet government or responsible government or Westminster model of government and is prevalent in Britain, Japan, Canada, India among others.
Features of Parliamentary form of government
(i) Nominal and Real Executives.
(ii) Majority Party Rule
(iii) Collective Responsibility
(iv) Double Membership
(v) Leadership of the Prime Minister
Merill of the parliamentary form of government
(i) Harmony between Legislature and Executive.
(ii) Responsible Government
(iii) Prevents Dictatorship.
(iv) Wide Representation.
Demerits of the parliamentary form of government
(i) Unstable Government.
(ii) No Continuity of Policies.
(iii) Dictatorship of the Cabinet.
(iv) Against Separation of Powers.

(i) "Red Tea" is a very well known novel written by Paul Harris Daniel.
(ii) The novel portraits the slavery life of plantation workers in Valparai.
(iii) This novel depicts the blood stained history of the workers that is hidden behind the green cover of the hills.
(iv) This novel has been translated in Tamil by R. Murugavel in the name "Eriyum Panikkaadu" (எரியும் பனிக்காடு)
(v) The story starts with Karupan migrating to the hills with his wife in search of survival.
(vi) The narrator of this story is Dr. Daniel, who comes there to treat the plantation employees.

a) Ripon
(i) Lord Ripon was the one who introduced the Local Self Government in 1882.
(ii) He was advocating for the decentralization of administration.
(iii) He tried to remove obstacles in the sphere of Local Self government by his resolution of 1882.
(iv) Under him a large number of Tahsildars had quasi - judicial powers in their sub - districts, along with revenue collection.
b) Munroe
(i) He was all for administration in the local language.
(ii) He was against the practice of appointing to administrative posts and the judiciary those who were not fluent with the local lexicon (language).
(iii) He felt that Indians ought to be allowed to dispense justice by themselves.

(i) In April 2013, the Government of India issued a National Policy and Process Guidelines on formation of FPOs.
(ii) The year 2014 was observed as the "Year of Farmer Producer Organisations" by the Government of India.
(iii) Its main idea of promoting and strengthening member based institutions of farmers.
(iv) It aimed at engaging the farmer companies to procure agricultural products and sell them.
(v) Supply of inputs such as seed, fertilizer and machinery, market linkages, training & networking and financial and technical advice are also among the major activities of FPO.

(i) In the 2151 century, GNSS has become a part of our lives to promote the safety and convenience of transport.
(ii) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a satellite system connected with a small electronic receiver or tracker to locate, monitor and track a user's vehicle wherever in the world.
(iii) It can also set up instant alerts when a driver of a vehicle speeds or deviates from a particular area.
(iv) GNSS applications are used in tracking or mapping vehicles, ships and aircraft.
(v) A group of satellites (Space Segment) working with a network of ground stations (Control Segment) provide location data.
(vi) The receiver (User Segment) converts satellite signals into location, speed and time data.
(vii) Examples of GNSS:
(a) Europe's Galileo
(b) USA's NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS)
(c) Russia's Global'naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS)
(d) China's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
(e) India's NAVIC satellite system

(a) Natural Environment:
Natural components of environment such as Lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
(b) Human Environment:
This is the interaction between man as an individual, with his family, occupation and society. It is also related to various cultural aspects such as education, religion, economics and politics.
(c) Man made Environment:
(i) This has been created by man himself for the purpose of fulfilling his needs and to make his life more convenient and easy.
(ii) For example, building, transport, park, industries, monument, etc.
(iii) To bring an equilibrium betweenman and the environment, man has to study the distribution of population, availability of resources, development in technology etc.

(i) The Indentured Labour System was a form of debt bondage.
(ii) By this system 3.5 million Indians were transported to various British colonies to provide labour for the plantations (mainly sugar).
(iii) It started from 1843, the year of abolition of slavery in India and continued until 1920.
(iv) This resulted in the development of a large Indian diaspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (Reunion and Mauritius) to Pacific Ocean (Fiji), as well as contributing to the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population.
(v) The Indenture system was a penal contract system.
(vi) The contract made punishable the refusal of an indentured labourer to work or his abstention from work, or his defiance of the orders of his master or absconding.

(i) Industrial Revolution required fuel.
(ii) Coal was needed in vast quantities.
(iii) Before the Industrial Revolution, two types of mines existed: drift mines and bell pits.
(iv) Both were small scale coal mines and the extracted coal was used in homes and local work spots.
(v) As industrialisation gained pace, more and more coal was needed to fuel steam engines and furnaces.
(vi) The development of factories by Arkwright and the improvement of the steam engine by James Watt further increased demand for coal.
(vii) As a result, coal mines became deeper and deeper, making it more and more dangerous.
(viii) As miners used oil lamps in the mines the risk of explosion was high leading to the death of miners.
(ix) This was reduced by the invention of a safety lamp by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1815.

(i) Initially the colonies did not begin fighting for the sake of independence. Their grievances were taxation and restrictions on trade.
(ii) George Washington was the Commender-in-Chief of the colonies and their battle cry was 'No Taxation without Representation'.
(iii) On 5 September 1774, the first Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. The Congress adopted a Declaration of American Rights.
(iv) The Battle of Bunker Hill signaled the outbreak of the American war of Independence.
(v) The second Continental Congress met on 10 May 1775 at Philadelphia. It organised the army gathered around Boston as the continental army and placed it under the command of George Washington.
(vi) As the war progressed, the Continental Congress assumed the functions of government. A committee was formed to explore the possibility of foreign aid.
(vii) On 17 June 1775 the Battle of Bunker Hill, the first major battle was fought in Massachusetts. Soon the British forces retreated from Boston.
(viii) On June 7, 1776 Richard Henry Lee of Virginia moved a resolution for independence.
(ix) After much debate the Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted by the Congress on July 4, 1776. This day is celebrated by the Americans as Independence Day.

(i) A settlement pattern refers to the way that buildings and houses are distributed in a rural settlement.
(ii) Settlement patterns are of interest to geographers, historians and anthropologists for the insight they offer in how a community has developed over time.
Linear : In a linear settlement pattern, the buildings are arranged in lines. These lines often follow the route of a road or body of water.
Dispersed : In a dispersed settlement pattern, the buildings are scattered over a wide area. Dispersed settlement patterns are often associated with agricultural activity and are frequently surrounded by farmland.
Nucleated: In a nucleated settlement pattern, the buildings are grouped around a central core. Nucleated settlement patterns are usually associated with patterns of agriculture in which the settlement is surrounded two or three fields, and each field divided into strips that were formed b individual farmers.

(i) The ancient Greeks created the world's first democracy. Athens started on with a monarchy and then advanced to an oligarchy until it finally reached a democracy.
(ii) The Greek Alphabet was the first alphabet in the western sense of the word, featuring distinct letters for vowels and consonants.
(iii) The first library in the world, the library of Alexandria was actually built in Egypt.
(iv) The Olympic games started in ancient Greece specially in the city of Olympia.
(v) Science and Mathematics - Eratosthenes was the first mathematician to calculate the circumference of the Earth. Aristarchus, Archimedes and Hipparchus were great mathematicians and scientists.
(vi) One of the common examples of Greek Architecture in the modular world is the Column in Pillar.
(vii) Greek mythology has pervaded nearly every form of popular culture imaginable. Many Greek myths have been adapted into modem novels, movies, TV, shows etc.
(viii) The first lighthouse in the world was located in the Greek controlled Egyptian Kingdom of Alexandria.
(ix) The democratic people of ancient Greece, especially Athens, were the first to employ trial by jury as we know it today.

Hampi:
(i)There are group of monuments in Hampi.
(ii)It is a UNESCO World Heritage site located in east central Karnataka.
(iii) It became the centre of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire capital in the 14th century.
(iv) Located in Kamataka near the modem-era city of Hosapete, Hampi's rains are spread over 4,100 hectares.
(v) Hampi continues to be an important religious centre, housing the Virupaksha temple, an active Adhi Sankara linked monastery and various monuments belonging to the old city.

(i) The Italian city-states were centres of cultural activities since the fourteenth century.
(ii) With the coming of the scholars and artists from Constantinople, there was a surge of enthusiasm and interest in studying classical literature and art of Greeks and Romans.
(iii) This creative upsurge was reflected in their writings, art, architecture and music.
(iv) This cultural florescence is known as the renaissance.
(v) The origin of the word renaissance is from the Italian word 'renascita' meaning rebirth.
(vi) It is called renaissance because there was a rebirth or revival of classical Greek and Latin literature.
(vii) Many scholars in Italy went in search of manuscripts of classical literature.
(viii) Greek scholar Manuel Chrysoloras who taught Greek classics in Italy, Guarino and Giovanni Aurispa, to name just a few, visited Constantinople several times to collect Greek manuscripts.
(ix) Later they printed what they collected.
(x) This provided stimulus to the flowering of renaissance.

(i) In 1925, the British government established a government press at Nasik in Maharashtra.
(ii) Currencies were printed three years later.
(iii) In 1974, a press was started in Dewas, Madhya Pradesh.
(iv) In the 1990's two more presses were started in Mysuru, Karnataka and Salboni in West Bengal to print bank notes.
(v) The Reserve Bank of India has the authority to decide the value of currency to be printed and how the amount should reach its destination safely.
(vi) Though the RBI has the power to print up to ten thousand rupee notes, at present a maximum of upto rupees two thousand is printed.

The functions of SHRC are
(i) The SHRC shall enquire into violation of human rights in respect of matters specified in the state and concurrent lists.
(ii) Its objectives and duties are the same as NHRC, but confined only to the state. It has a chairman and two members.
(iii) It has the power of a civil court and can take cognizance of cases if received.
(iv) It can also recommend compensation to victims.

(i) Christianity underwent many significant developments during the later Middle Ages.
(ii) The most important were in matters of doctrine and religious practices.
(iii) New elements were included in Christian theology like theory of priesthood and the theory of sacraments.
(iv) Excommunication and Interdict were the two instruments used against those who defied the Church.

This picture depicts Water Cycle.
The three major processes involved in the water cycle area)
Evaporation,
b) Condensation
c) Precipitation.
Evaporation is the process by which water is converted from its liquid state to the gaseous state, usually as a result of the sun's warming rays.
Condensation occurs as the vapour rises into the atmosphere, creating clouds and fog. Once clouds are formed, advection (the movement of water in its various states) through thatmosphere. Without advection, the water would evaporate and precipitate at the same place only.
Precipitation occurs when the vapour that condensed comes back out of the sky as rain, snow, sleet, hail. Most of it comes back to the ground or body of water. Thus water moves across land and is stored in lakes or reservoirs for human uses.

a) Continental Rise
(i) At the base of the continental slope is a gently sloping layer of sediments which merge into the deep-sea floor.
(ii) This underwater feature found between continental slope and abyssal plains is called the continental rise.
(iii) It consists of submarine fans which are similar to the alluvial fans found on land.
b) Oceanic Ridge
(i) Oceanic ridge is a continuous submarine mountain chain.
(ii) They are made of young basaltic rock formed when two tectonic plates moves apart.
(iii) The mid-ocean ridge is probably the most extensive single feature of the earth's topography.
(iv) Two of the most well known mid- ocean ridges are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Ridge.
(v) The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the largest unbroken oceanic ridge.

Aquatic biome is a group of living organisms that live and interact with one another and its aquatic environment for nutrients and shelter. It is broadly classified as fresh water biomes and marine biomes.
A. Fresh water Biomes:
(i) Fresh water biomes comprises lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetlands etc.
(ii) It is influenced by various abiotic components such as the volume of water, water flow, composition of oxygen, temperature, etc.
(iii) Humans rely on freshwater biomes for drinking water, crop irrigation, sanitation and industry.
(iv) Water lily, lotus, duck weeds etc. are the common plants found here.
(v) Trout, salmon, turtles, crocodiles etc. are the animals found here.
B. Marine Biomes:
(i) They are the largest aquatic biomes on earth.
(ii) They are continuous bodies of salt water and provide a wide range of habitats for marine plants and animals.
(ii) Coral reefs are a second kind of marine biomes within the ocean.
(iv) Estuaries, coastal areas where salt water and fresh water mix, form a third unique marine biome.
(v) As water provides maximum mobility to marine organisms, nutrients are circulated more quickly and efficiently here than the terrestrial biomes.
(vi) Apart from animals, plants such as kelp, algae, phytoplankton etc. also grow in water.
(vii) Some of the threats and issues to aquatic biomes are overfishing, pollution and rise in sea level.

Some of the erosional landforms of sea waves are sea cliff, sea cave, arch, stack, beach, bar and spit and wave cut platform.
Sea Cave: Prolonged wave attack on the base of a cliff erodes rock materials, which result in the formation of caves.
Sea Arch: When two caves approach one another from either side of a headland and unite, they form an arch. e.g., Neil Island, Andaman and Nicobar.
Sea Stack: Further erosion by waves ultimately leads to the total collapse of the arch. The seaward portion of the headland will remain as a pillar of rock known as stack. Eg the Old man of Hoy in Scotland.
Sea Cliffs: Sea cliffs are steep rock faces formed when sea waves dash against them. The rocks get eroded to form steep vertical walls.
Wave Cut Platforms: Flat surface found at the foot of sea cliffs are called as wave-cut platforms. Wave cut platform is also referred as beach, shelf, terrace and plain.

Sustainable economic development is taken to mean development without damaging the environment and not compromising with the needs of the future generation. The consequences of environmental degradation do not respect national or state boundaries. Sustainability of development is comparatively a new area of knowledge in which scientists, economists, philosophers and other social scientists are working together. Natural resources can be divided into renewable resources and non-renewable resources. Groundwater is an example of a renewable resource. The question arises as to how sustainable development is possible if the resources are over-used rather than getting replenished. Nonrenewable resources get exhausted after certain number of years of extracting and using them and they cannot be replenished. To achieve real sustainability, we need to balance economic, social and environmental sustainability in equal harmony. In general, the question of development or progress is continuous. At all times, as a member of society and as individuals, we need to ask where we want to go, what we wish to become and what our goals are.

(i) Tertiary sector in the service sector. The basic characteristics of this sector is offering the knowledge instea of producing products.
(ii) Service sector in the key factor for the social, economic growth of a country.
(iii) It controls the work pattern and output of the primary and secondary sectors. So tertiary sector is in top position in the world now.

(i) The river channels of the upper course has more energy gradiant then the channels of lower course.
(ii) As the river flows in the lower course it corrodes sideways and makes it wider.

Mobilising people towards socially productive activities that lead to the overall betterment of people's lives is essential. Sometimes earthquakes, tsunamis, floods and other such natural disasters on a massive scale occur and people's immediate mobilisation for evacuation and emergency relief becomes most essential.
Democratic Participation: Democracy can succeed only when smaller local groups and, in fact, every citizen can take action that supports the tax and revenue collection systems, observance of national norms in environmental protection, cleanliness, health and hygiene, sanitary drives and immunisation programmes like pulse polio. However, we must keep in mind that there is no better form of government than Democratic government. To create a better society and nation, the people of India along with the union and state governments should come together to fight against the miseries of human life.

Though democracy in India has been appreciated worldwide for its working, there is still a lot of scope for improvement. The above-mentioned steps must be taken to ensure smooth functioning of democracy in the country.
Indian democracy can be successful and vibrant only when its citizens imbibe and reflect in their behavior the basic democratic values like equality, freedom, social justice, accountability and respect for all. Their mindset, thinking and behavior are expected to be in tune with the essential conditions of democracy. They have to appreciate the opportunities for their desired roles like participation, making the system accountable, fulfilling obligations, and playing proactive roles to actualize the goals of democracy.

Buddhism declined in India due to the following reasons:
1. Buddhism was popular in the beginning because it was preached in people's language (Pali). The later texts were written in Sanskrit, which was difficult for the common people to understand.
2. The split in Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana was another vital reason. Image 0" worship in Mahayana made no difference between Hinduism and Buddhism.
3. Buddhism lost its royal patronage during the reign of Guptas.
4. Further, the invasions of Huns and Turks almost wiped out Buddhism.

The word 'Tsunami' is a Japanese term, meaning harbour waves. It is adapted to describe large seismically generated sea waves caused by Earthquakes, submarine explosions and landslides. These waves travel at a great speed (more than 500 km per hour) and the length of the waves exceeds 600 km. These waves reach to a height of more than 15 m near the sea shore and are capable of causing destruction along the coastal area.
The 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake that caused tsunami is.the sixth-deadliest natural disaster which travelled at a speed of 6.00km per hour with an estimated death toll of 2,80,000. The Earthquake which occurred near Indonesia at 00.58 hours took nearly 7 hours to reach Chennai.

(i) The Sangam Age saw the first urbanization in Tamilagam.
(ii) Cities developed and they had brick buildings, roof tiles, ring wells and planned towns, streets, and store houses.
(iii) The towns worked as ports and artisanal centres. Arikkamedu, Kaveripoompattinam, Azhagankulam and Korkai on the east coast and Pattanam in Kerala were port centres. Kanchipuram, Uraiyur, Karur, Madurai and Kodumanal were inland trade centres.
(iv) Many goods and commodities were produced in these centres and were exported to various regions.
(v) Though few in number, large towns appeared in the Sangam Age.
(vi) Small villages however were found in many areas. Bronze vessels, beads, shell bangles, glass beads, pottery with names of people written in Tamil-Brahmi script were found at these sites.

(i) The culture that domesticated animals and cultivated crops is called Neolithic.
(ii) It is known as the New Stone Age. The Neolithic people used polished stone axes called celts.
(iii) Cattle rearing was their main occupation. They lived in small villages with houses made of thatched roof and walls plastered with clay.
(iv) Evidence of Neolithic village is found at Payyampalli in Vellore district and a few sites in the Dharmapuri region.
(v) Payyampalli is a village in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu. The earliest evidence for the domestication of animals and cultivation of plants is found at this site, which was excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India.
(vi) Evidence for pottery making and cultivation of horse gram and green gram has been found in this village.
(vii) These Neolithic sites were part of the Southern Neolithic Culture of India. They are mainly concentrated in the Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka regions.
(viii) The Neolithic people used stone axes fitted on a wooden handle .
(ix) These polished stone axes are worshipped in many village temples of Tamil Nadu even today.

(i) The nature of employment in India is multi-dimensional. Some get employment throughout the year; some others get employed for only a few months in a year.
(ii) The economy is classified into three sectors: primary or agriculture sector, secondary or industrial sector and tertiary or service sector.
(iii) The structure of employment denotes the number of workers engaged in different sectors of the economy.
(iv) Though the occupational pattern varies from one country to another, one can find in developing countries like India that a large work force will be engaged in primary sector, while a small proportion in secondary and tertiary sectors.
(v) Whereas, in well-developed countries, the proportion of workforce engaged in agriculture will be very small and a majority of labour force will be in the industrial and tertiary sectors.
(vi) Employment has always featured as an important element of development policy in India.
(vii) Employment growth has increased at an average rate of 2% during the past four decades since 1972-73.

A is correct; R explains about A