Characteristics of Good governance
(a) Participation
(b) Rule of Law
(c) Transparency
(d) Responsiveness
(e) Consensus Orientation
(f) Equity
(g) Effectiveness And Efficiency
(h) Accountability

The extent and nature of these migrant streams would essentially depend on:
(i) Pressures and aspirations experienced by people at the origin of migration.
(ii) Constraints imposed on mobility at the origin of migration.
(iii) Opportunities at the destination and availability of information regarding these opportunities.
(iv) The cost of migration.

The GVK. Rao Committee was appointed by the
(i) Planning Commission in 1985 to look at various aspects of Panchayat Raj Institution.
(ii) It recommended that Panchayat Raj Institution should be activated and provided with all the required support to become effective organisation.
(iii) Panchayati Raj at district level and below should be assigned the work of Planning, Implementation and Monitoring of rural development programmes.

(i) The National Ayush Movement scheme is implemented by the central government.
(ii) Its main aim is to save and extend the life of many medicinal herbs that grow only in the forest.
(iii) This scheme is carried out with 60:40 shares from the central and state governments

Cyber cartography is a term that is used to define all the aspects of current state of Web and virtual mapping.

Environment can be classified as
(a) Natural Environment
(b) Human Environment and
(e) Man Made Environment

(i) The Ryotwari system was a different revenue system introduced in South India.
(ii) Under this system, the peasant was the proprietor and paid tax on the land.
(iii) The government dealt with him directly.
(iv) He was entitled to remain in possession of land acquired by him so long as he paid the land revenue.
(v) In case of default, apart from eviction and attachment of livestock, even household property or personal belongings could be attached.

(i) Combination Laws of 1799 prohibited the formation of associations of workers.
(ii) In the early decades of the nineteenth century there were Luddites.
(iii) Fearing the loss of jobs due to the introduction of machines, Luddites protested by wrecking machines.
(iv) The Combination Laws were repealed in 1824.
(v) Yet the workers could not form a national union.

(i) The Seven Years War of 1756-63 between France and Britain cost the English heavily.
(ii) The British Ministers proposed that the American colonists pay some of the cost of the war.
(iii) So a series of taxes were imposed on the colonists.

(i) By the end of the nineteenth century, France had became prominent for its automobiles.
(ii) In 1898 Louis Renault built the quadricycle. He began to produce in large quantities under his company the Societe Renault Freres (Company Renault Brothers).

A map should include the following components namely, the title, scale, direction, grid reference, projection, legend, conventional signs and symbols

(i) Urban local governments are Corporation, Municipality and Town Panchayat
(ii) The area where more than 10,000 people are living is called a Town Panchayat
(iii) Municipalities were constituted in India for the first time in Chennai in 1688
(iv) Municipal Corporation are established in big cities.

(i) Many people move to urban areas primarily because cities promise more jobs better schools for poor's children and diverse income opportunities then subsistence forming in rural areas.
(ii) Urbanization drives economic growth and causes people to seek working and investment opportunities in urban areas.
(iii) Local governments are unable to manage urbanisation and migrant workers without an affordable place to live in, dwell in slums.
(iv) The VN.Habitat reports that 43% of urban population in developing countries and 78% of those in the least developed countries are slum dwellers.
(v) Lack of affordable low cost housing and poor planning encourages the supply side of slums.
(vi) Some of the slums in to-days world are a product of urbanisation brought by colonialism.
(vii) Urban poverty, encourages the formation and demand for slums.
(viii) Major natural disasters in poor nations often lead to migration of disaster affected form his to unaffiliated areas, the creation of temporary tent city and slums.

The productivity of rice - 1965 - 66 - 1409 kgs per hectare.
1975 - 76 - 2372 kgs per hectare.
1985 - 86 - 2712 kgs per hectare
2014 - 15 - 4429 kgs per hectare
In the past 50 years, the productivity of paddy has increased more than three times.

(i) The period witnessed a great influx of luxury goods such as silk, spices, and gems from the east.
(ii) Cities were built on a grand scale, with temples, theatres, stadia and colosseum, gymnasia, aqueducts, baths and markets.
(iii) The rich people distracted the attention of the poor by organizing games and contests in circuses.
(iv) Gladiators were forced to fight and kill each other.

(i) Under Alexander the Great, the Greeks were able to establish a kingdom in Macedonia.
(ii) This kingdom succeeded in annexing two historic empires of Egypt and the Middle East.
(iii) But the entire period of Alexander's reign was spent on wars.
(iv) The Greek school of Science, Mathematics and Philosophy reached its peak in the Greek- Egyptian city of Alexandria.

(I) When the Greek City-States first emerged, they still carried the legacy of the past.
(ii) The rulers came from lines of traditional chieftains.
(iii) Those who grew rich from the expansion of trade, resented the privileges enjoyed by the old ruling families.
(iv) The outcome was the overthrow of the kings and the establishment of "oligarchies" in many city-states.

(i) This empire needed two kinds of resources to feed its military establishment - revenue and men.
(ii) This was achieved through re-organizing the administration of the conquered territories, especially in the Tamil region,
(iii) Military officers, known as 'nayakas', were appointed as chiefs of various localities in Tamilnadu.
(iv) It received land grants from the emperor.
(v) There were also lesser military leaders known as palayakkarar who essentially supplied the manpower for the army.

(i) The consolidation of Muslim rule under the Mughals in the north, beginning in 1526 A.D. (C.E.) with the defeat of the Ibrahim Lodi by Babur.
(ii) At its height, the Mughal empire stretched from Kabul to Gujarat to Bengal, from Kashmir to south India

In 1453 A.D. Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, was captured by the Ottoman Turks.

(i) The origin of the word renaissance is from the Italian word renascita meaning rebirth.
(ii) It is called renaissance because there was a rebirth or revival of classical Greek and Latin literature

a)Herbivorous: A herbivores is an animal that gets its energy from eating plants and only plants. Many herbivores have special digestive systems that let them digest all kinds of plants including grasses. Eg., deer, rabbits, cows, sheep, goats, elephants, giraffes, horses and pandas.
b) Carnivores: A Carnivore is an animal that gets food from killing and eating other animals. Or they scavenge their dead flesh. Eg., Hyenas, Wolves, Mountains lions, Polar Bears.
c) Omnivores: An omnivore is a kind of animal that eats either other animals or plants. Eg. Raccoons, pigs, rats, chickens, crows etc.
d) Scavengers: Scavengers feed partly or wholly on the bodies of dead animals. Eg., Jackals, Leopards, Lions, Vulture etc.

(i) People who live in a particular place or those who are involved in a certain work join together as a group and start saving.
(ii) These are called as Self Help Groups (SHG).

The Child rights, SC and ST rights, Women rights, Right to information Act (RTI) and Labour laws come under Extended rights.

(i) National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) was established on 1st January 1966.
(ii) The headquarters of NIO is located at Dona paule, Goa.
(iii) It conducts research and observations to understand Oceanic features, Ocean engineering, Marine Archaeology etc.,

It protect children's from sexual exploitation and abuse, When they are forced or persuaded to take part in sexual activities physically or mentally.

(i) Pepper, spices, pearls, gems, rubies and muslin clothes were exported from the eastern sea of Tamil Nadu. Pepper and spices took a major share of the exports.
(ii) Thus this route came to be called as the spice route.

(i) Bio diversity refers to a wide variety of Iiving organisms, which live in a habitat.
(ii) It is highly influenced by topography, climate as well as human activities.

(i) Of all the movements of the oceans, sea waves are considered to be the strongest.
(ii) Sea waves are ripples on water caused when winds blow over the sea.
(iii) The height of these waves depends on the speed of wind, its duration and the direction from which they blow.
(iv) Sometimes waves are also caused by tremors felt on the ocean floor.
(v) Such waves are quite destructive and called Tsunami

The factors that generate ocean currents are:
(i) Earth's rotation
(ii) Prevailing winds and
(iii) Differences in temperature and salinity of ocean water

Excommunication and Interdict were the two instruments used against those who defied the church.

The Ring of Fire is a ring of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean. These volcanoes result from subduction of oceanic plates beneath lighter continental plates, A subduction zone is a place where one plate of oceanic lithosphere is shoved under another plate. As it is shoved into the hotter mantle the plate heats up. The addition of volatiles such as water to the hot overlying mantle causes partial melting and the production of magma. This magma rises up through the over-lying plate to erupt at the surface. Hence, the Pacific Ring of Fire is most seismically and volcanically active.

Due to the river action, cylindrical holes are drilled vertically in the river bed with varying depth and diametre.

Human Resource Development means the development of a person's physical and mental abilities through education, health care and training.

(i) Coastal zone is exposed to natural forces including cyclones and Tsunamis.
(ii) Cuddalore and Nagapattinam are situated on the Sea-Shore.
(iii) Cuddalore and Nagapattinam are vulnerable to storms.
(iv) During Summer Bay of Bengal subject to intense heat cause to raise the humid and unstable air masses that produce cyclone.

The trends are
(a) Increasing self-employment.
(b) Firms using fewer full-time employees and tending to offer more short-term contracts.
(c) There has been a growth in part-time employment.

(i) Yes, weathering a pre-requisite in the formation of soil.
(ii) The rock materials in due course of time are weathered further to form soil.
(iii) Soil is a mixture of disintegrated rock material.

The pressure groups in India can be broadly classified into the following categories:
1. Business groups
2. Trade unions
3. Agrarian groups
4. Professional associations
5. Student organisations
6. Religious organisations
7. Tribal organisations
8. Linguistic groups
9. Ideology-based groups
10. Environmental protection groups.

(i) Democracy is a form of government that allows people to choose their rulers.
(ii) Only leaders elected by people should rule the country.
(iii) People have freedom to express views, freedom to organise and freedom to protest.

(i) Monastries and temples served the purpose of imparting education.
(ii) Nalanda was a great monastery built by the Magadha Empire.
(iii) Educational centres offered Buddhist and Vedic literature, logic, grammar, medicine, philosophy and astronomy.
(iv) Even the science of war was taught.
(v) Nalanda became the most renowned seat of learning in course of time.

Active volcanoes are those which constantly eject volcanic lava, gases and fragmented materials. e.g., Mount St. Helens in the United States.

A planned town with brick architecture and, a proper layout. Urban centres have a larger population involved in non-agrarian, commercial and political occupations. Various industrial activities are seen in these towns.

While the fossil bones are classified as various species such as Homo habilis, Homo erectus and Neanderthalensis, based on the lithic tools, cultures are assigned names such as Earliest Lithic, Assemblages, Oldowan Technology, Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures.

(i) The invention of the potter's wheel is credited to the Sumerians.
(ii) They developed the calender system of 360 days and divided a circle into 360 units.
(iii) The Cuneiform system of writing was their contribution.
(iv) The Hammurabi's law code was another legacy of the Mesopotamians.

1. Ajathasatru, the son of Bimbisara is said to have murdered his father and ascended the throne in 493 BCE.
2. He expanded his territery through military conquests.
3. He strengthened the Rajagriha fort and also built another fort at Pataligrama on the Ganges.

(i) Coins as a medium of exchange were introduced for the first time in the Sangam Age.
(ii) The coins of the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas, punch-marked coins, and Roman coins form another important source of evidence from the Sangam Age.
(iii) Sometimes coins were protected as a precious wealth.

Flat surface found at the foot of the sea cliffs are called as wave cut platforms, wave cut platform is also referred as beach, shelf, terrace and plain.

The course of a river is divided into
(i) The Upper course - V shaped valleys, gorges
(ii) The middle course - Alluvial fans, flood plains
(iii) The lower course - Delta and Estuary
Associated land forms
i) Water falls - The upper course
ii) Ox bow lakes - The middie course
iii) Deltas - The lower course

Biological weathering occurs due to the penetration and expansion of plant roofs, earth worms, burrowing animals (rabbits, rats) and same human activities.

(i) Hammurabi Code is an important legal document that specifies the laws related to various crimes.
(ii) It has 282 provisions specifying cases related to family rights, trade, slavery, taxes and wages.
(iii) It is carved on a stone, which portrays Hammurabi as receiving the code from the Sun god Shamash.
(iv) It was a compilation of old laws based on retributive principles.
(v) The 'eye for eye' and 'tooth for tooth' form of justice is used in the Hammurabi Code.

(i) The people of Middle Palaeo lithic culture were called Neanderthals.
(ii) They buried the dead people systematically.
(iii) They were the first human ancestors to mourn death properly and bury the dead.
(iv) They did not have needles, sewn clothes and warm houses essential for survival in colder climates.

a)

b)

 

a) Pacific Ring of fire: It is a major area and an arc in the_basin of the Pacific ocean where many earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur.

(b) Earthquake-prone zones (any two): Turkey, Indonesia

(c) Locate any two active volcanoes of the world: Hawaii-, Mount Fuji

(d) Himalayas and Alps ranges

Unitary features of Indian constitution are
(1) Strong Centre
(2) Central Government's control over state territory
(3) Single Constitution.
(4) Flexibility of the Constitution
(5) Unequal representation of states
(6) Emergency Provisions
(7) Single citizenship
(8) Single Integrated Judiciary
(9) All India Services
(10) Appointment of Governor by the central government.

(i) Disaster response entails restoring physical facilities, rehabilitation of affected populations, restoration oflost livelihoods and reconstruction efforts to restore the infrastructure lost or damaged
(ii) The Response Phase focuses primarily on emergency relief: saving lives, providing first aid, restoring damaged systems (communications and transportation), meeting the basic life requirements of those impacted by disaster (food, water, and shelter), and providing mental health and spiritual support and care.

Agriculture, despite a sharp decline in gross domestic product, continues to be the largest employer in Tamil. Nadu. This is because the non-agriculture sectors are yet to generate enough employment to affect a shift of labour force.

(i) Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaic cells or indirectly using concentrated solar power.
(ii) Solar panels absorb the sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity.
(iii) A solar electric system can reliably produce electricity for our home and offices.

(i) Development refers to the progress of a particular field or a particular person.
(ii) The economic progress of a country is known as economic development.
(iii) Development refers to the improvement in quality of life such as higher income, better education, better health and nutrition less poverty and more equal opportunity.

Abraham Lincoln defines democracy as a government of the people, by the people and for the people

Rules to Ensure Road Safety for chlldren
It is impportant for children to know about road safety rules and regulatioins. Here are a few
basic road safety rules for children.
i) Know Your Signals
ii) Stop, Look and Cross
iii) Pay Attention - Listen
iv) Don't Run on Roads
v) Always Use Sidewalks
vi) Never Stick Hands outside the Vehicle
vii) Never cross Road at Bends
viii) Don't Rush.

The different factors contribute to road accident are,
i) Drivers: Over speeding, rash driving, violation of rules, failure to understand signs, fatigue, alcohol.
ii) Pedestrians: Carelessness, illiteracy, crossing at wrong places, jaywalkers.
iii) Passengers: Projecting their body parts outside vehicles, talking to drivers, alighting and boarding vehicles from the wrong side, travelling on footboards, catching a running bus etc.,
iv) Vehicles: Failure of brakes or steering, tyre burst, insufficient headlights, overloading.
v) Road Conditions: Potholes, damaged roads, eroded roads merging of rural roads with highways and illegal speed breakers.
vi) Weather conditions: Fog, snow, heavy rainfall, wind storms, hail storms. 

Parliamentary form of Government
(i) The parliamentary system of government is the one in which the executive is responsible to the legislature for its policies and acts.
(ii) It is also known as cabinet government or responsible government or Westminster model of government and is prevalent in Britain, Japan, Canada, India among others.
Features of Parliamentary form of government
(i) Nominal and Real Executives.
(ii) Majority Party Rule
(iii) Collective Responsibility
(iv) Double Membership
(v) Leadership of the Prime Minister
Merill of the parliamentary form of government
(i) Harmony between Legislature and Executive.
(ii) Responsible Government
(iii) Prevents Dictatorship.
(iv) Wide Representation.
Demerits of the parliamentary form of government
(i) Unstable Government.
(ii) No Continuity of Policies.
(iii) Dictatorship of the Cabinet.
(iv) Against Separation of Powers.

(i) "Red Tea" is a very well known novel written by Paul Harris Daniel.
(ii) The novel portraits the slavery life of plantation workers in Valparai.
(iii) This novel depicts the blood stained history of the workers that is hidden behind the green cover of the hills.
(iv) This novel has been translated in Tamil by R. Murugavel in the name "Eriyum Panikkaadu" (எரியும் பனிக்காடு)
(v) The story starts with Karupan migrating to the hills with his wife in search of survival.
(vi) The narrator of this story is Dr. Daniel, who comes there to treat the plantation employees.

(i) E.V. Ramasamy Periyar was the Chairman of the Erode Municipality for many years from 1917.
(ii) During his tenure in Erode Municipality, EVR worked effectively for drinking water supply and provision and Health facilities to the people.
(iii) He only provided the piped water supply first in India.
(iv) He was a member of the District Board and Secretary ofthe Water Works Committee and Plague Committee.
(v) He gave a proposal to expand the municipality by adjoining Neighboring areas but it came into existence only in 1980.

(i) In April 2013, the Government of India issued a National Policy and Process Guidelines on formation of FPOs.
(ii) The year 2014 was observed as the "Year of Farmer Producer Organisations" by the Government of India.
(iii) Its main idea of promoting and strengthening member based institutions of farmers.
(iv) It aimed at engaging the farmer companies to procure agricultural products and sell them.
(v) Supply of inputs such as seed, fertilizer and machinery, market linkages, training & networking and financial and technical advice are also among the major activities of FPO.

a) Topographical Maps
(i) Topographical maps show main features like landforms, water features, forests, settlements, agricultural fields, other land use, transportation and communication networks.
(ii) These maps are general purpose maps and are drawn at quite large scales.
(iii) The Survey of India prepares the topographical maps in India for the entire country.
b) Weather Maps
(i) A weather map is the technique of meteorologists to display all the weather data recorded at various stations of a country at a particular point of time into a compact outline map using symbols and isolines.
(ii) A weather map, otherwise called a synoptic chart, helps in weather analysis and weather forecast of the country/region for the next two to three days.

(i) "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs".
(ii) For sustainable development to be achieved, it is crucial to harmonize three core elements: economic growth, social aspects and environmental protection.
(iii) These elements are interconnected and are crucial for the well-being of individuals and societies
(iv) To achieve true sustainability, we need to balance the economic, social and environmental factors of sustainability in equal harmony.

Social Sustainablilty:
(i) The ability of a social system such as a country, family or organization to function at a defined level of social well being and harmony is called social sustainability.
(ii) The balancing capacity of a government in maintaining peaceful existence towards other countries and at the same time providing the requirements of its citizens without affecting the environment creates social sustainability.
Economic Sustainability:
(i) The economic sustainability is successfully implemented through strong Public Distrubution System.
(ii) Economic sustainability ensures that our economic growth maintains a healthy balance with our ecosystem.
Environment Sustainability:
(i) It is the ability of the environment to support a defined level of environmental quality and natural resource extraction rates forever to mankind.
(ii) Unnecessary disturbances to the environment should be avoided whenever.

(i) The policy of free trade and the forcible collection of land revenue resulted in the out break of famines.
(ii) The Odisha famine of 1866-67 was a severe and terrible event.
(iii) The famines of 1876-78 known as the Great famine of 1876-78 caused a large migration of agricultural labourers and artisans from Southern India to British colonies.
(iv) Here they worked as indentured labourers on plantations.
(v) In the Madras Presidency, the famine of 1876- 78 was preceded by droughts.
(vi) The situation was made worse because of the colonial government's policy of laissez faire in the trade of food grains.
(vii) Two of the worst famine-afflicted areas in the Madras Presidency were the district of Ganjam and Vizagapatnam. They continued to export grains throughout the famine.
(viii)These famines were typically followed by various infectious diseases.
(ix) The memory of this famine is still preserved in various folk songs and ballads.
(x) The Bengal famine of 1770 as well as 1943 of British India took a heavy toll of human lives.

The Industrial Revolution began in England first because, it had certain objective conditions. They were:
(i) England had abundant resources and possessed colonies, with India being "the brightest jewel in the British Crown".
(ii) Access to coal, iron and raw cotton from the colonies.
(iii) England possessed the required infrastructure for textiles, developed by immigrant artisans from the Netherlands.
(iv) England had a developed banking system, a growing entrepreneurial class, and potential investors.
(v) Encouragement of the Royal Society of England for scientific discoveries and inventions.
(vi) Political stability of England to bestow its full attention to industrial growth.

(i) The French Revolution had may lasting results.
(ii) It marked the end of the system of absolute monarchy in France.
(iii) All feudal privileges were abolished and the power of clergy was curbed.
(iv) The Revolution united the people of different sections and paved the way for the enhanced power of the state.
(v) It also led to the growth of feelings of nationalism and the emergence of an assertive middle class.
(vi) Revolution up held the theory of people's sovereignty and laid the foundation for the birth of liberal constitutional governments in Europe.
(vii) Liberty, equality, and fraternity became the watchwords of freedom loving people all over the world.
(viii) It inspired many later day political movements for the establishment of liberal democracy in Europe and elsewhere.

(i) The ancient Greeks created the world's first democracy. Athens started on with a monarchy and then advanced to an oligarchy until it finally reached a democracy.
(ii) The Greek Alphabet was the first alphabet in the western sense of the word, featuring distinct letters for vowels and consonants.
(iii) The first library in the world, the library of Alexandria was actually built in Egypt.
(iv) The Olympic games started in ancient Greece specially in the city of Olympia.
(v) Science and Mathematics - Eratosthenes was the first mathematician to calculate the circumference of the Earth. Aristarchus, Archimedes and Hipparchus were great mathematicians and scientists.
(vi) One of the common examples of Greek Architecture in the modular world is the Column in Pillar.
(vii) Greek mythology has pervaded nearly every form of popular culture imaginable. Many Greek myths have been adapted into modem novels, movies, TV, shows etc.
(viii) The first lighthouse in the world was located in the Greek controlled Egyptian Kingdom of Alexandria.
(ix) The democratic people of ancient Greece, especially Athens, were the first to employ trial by jury as we know it today.

Darasuram Temple:
(i) Darasuram is a panchayat town, located 3 kilometres from Kumbakonam in Thanjavur District, Tamilnadu.
(ii) The town is known for the Airavateswara temple constructed by Raja Raja Chola II in the 12th century A.D.
(iii) The temple is recognised UNESCO World Heritage Monument.
(iv) Darasuram temple is a storehouse of art and architecture.
(v) The vimana is 85 feet high.
(vi) With heavily ornamented pillars accurate in detail and richly sculpted walls, the Airavateswara at Darasuram is a classic example of Chola art and architecture

(i) The Italian city-states were centres of cultural activities since the fourteenth century.
(ii) With the coming of the scholars and artists from Constantinople, there was a surge of enthusiasm and interest in studying classical literature and art of Greeks and Romans.
(iii) This creative upsurge was reflected in their writings, art, architecture and music.
(iv) This cultural florescence is known as the renaissance.
(v) The origin of the word renaissance is from the Italian word 'renascita' meaning rebirth.
(vi) It is called renaissance because there was a rebirth or revival of classical Greek and Latin literature.
(vii) Many scholars in Italy went in search of manuscripts of classical literature.
(viii) Greek scholar Manuel Chrysoloras who taught Greek classics in Italy, Guarino and Giovanni Aurispa, to name just a few, visited Constantinople several times to collect Greek manuscripts.
(ix) Later they printed what they collected.
(x) This provided stimulus to the flowering of renaissance.

(i) Educational loan attempts to meet the educational aspirations of the society.
(ii) A student is the main borrower.
(iii) A parent, spouse or sibling can be the co-applicant.
(iv) It is offered to students who want to pursue higher education in India or overseas.
(v) It can be taken for a full time, part-time or vocational course and Graduation or Post Graduation.
(vi) There is no security required for the loan amount up to 4 lakhs.
(vii) The loan is repaid by the student generally after the employment.
(viii)Students can apply through "Vidya Lakshmi Portal Education Loan Scheme.

(i) The Right to Information Act is a revolutionary act that aims to promote transparency in government institutions in India.
(ii) This act was enacted in October 2005.
(iii) A common man can demand any government organization to provide information.
(iv) The information must be provided within thirty days.
(v) If not, a fee will be collected as penalty from the concerned official.
(vi) It is one of the most powerful laws of the country.
(vii) This act is people friendly; even an illiterate person can ask any Public Information Officer to write it down for him.
(viii) All government agencies like Municipal Corporations, Government departments, Government Schools, Road Authorities, etc., come under this Act.

(i) Feudalism was born out of chaos and disorder in the society.
(ii) Under Feudalism the king was the head of the feudal regime.
(iii) Immediately after him were the great nobles, known as dukes, counts, earls.
(iv) The relationship was one of a vassal.
(v) The nobles in turn had vassals of their own, dividing and distributing their fief to lesser nobles called viscounts or barons.
(vi) Last in this order were the knights, whose fiefs cannot be divided.
(vii) At the bottom were the villeins or serfs.
(viii) In the feudal system which centred around vassalage, there was no idea of equality or freedom.
(ix) There were only rights and obligations.
(x) The Bishops, Abbots and Cardinals and the Church came under this socio-political structure.
(xi) The nobility and the clergy did not do any physical work only peasants and artisans were taxed.
(xii) They new class traders formed guilds, became wealthy enough to defy even the nobles and the kings.
(xiii) This development led to the end of Feudalism.

a) Continental Rise
(i) At the base of the continental slope is a gently sloping layer of sediments which merge into the deep-sea floor.
(ii) This underwater feature found between continental slope and abyssal plains is called the continental rise.
(iii) It consists of submarine fans which are similar to the alluvial fans found on land.
b) Oceanic Ridge
(i) Oceanic ridge is a continuous submarine mountain chain.
(ii) They are made of young basaltic rock formed when two tectonic plates moves apart.
(iii) The mid-ocean ridge is probably the most extensive single feature of the earth's topography.
(iv) Two of the most well known mid- ocean ridges are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Ridge.
(v) The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the largest unbroken oceanic ridge.

Aquatic biome is a group of living organisms that live and interact with one another and its aquatic environment for nutrients and shelter. It is broadly classified as fresh water biomes and marine biomes.
A. Fresh water Biomes:
(i) Fresh water biomes comprises lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetlands etc.
(ii) It is influenced by various abiotic components such as the volume of water, water flow, composition of oxygen, temperature, etc.
(iii) Humans rely on freshwater biomes for drinking water, crop irrigation, sanitation and industry.
(iv) Water lily, lotus, duck weeds etc. are the common plants found here.
(v) Trout, salmon, turtles, crocodiles etc. are the animals found here.
B. Marine Biomes:
(i) They are the largest aquatic biomes on earth.
(ii) They are continuous bodies of salt water and provide a wide range of habitats for marine plants and animals.
(ii) Coral reefs are a second kind of marine biomes within the ocean.
(iv) Estuaries, coastal areas where salt water and fresh water mix, form a third unique marine biome.
(v) As water provides maximum mobility to marine organisms, nutrients are circulated more quickly and efficiently here than the terrestrial biomes.
(vi) Apart from animals, plants such as kelp, algae, phytoplankton etc. also grow in water.
(vii) Some of the threats and issues to aquatic biomes are overfishing, pollution and rise in sea level.

Merits:
(i) In a huge population country all the people can be represented by multiple parties.
(ii) Particular groups can form their own parties.
(iii) People will have multiple options to vote.
Demerits:
(i) Votes will be scattered.
(ii) It will develop groupsism.
(iii) When there is absolute majority there will be coalition government.

Rivers generally originate from mountains and end In a sea or lake. The whole path that a river
flows through is called its course. The course of a river is divided into:
(i) The upper course
(ii) The middle course and
(iii) The lower course
(i) The Upper Course: Erosion is the most dominant action of river in the upper course. In this course, a river usually tumbles down the steep mountain slopes. The steep gradient increases the velocity and the river channel performs erosion with great force to widen and deepen its valley; The land' features carved by a river in its upper course are V-shaped valleys, gorges, canyons, rapids, potholes, spurs, and waterfalls.
(ii) The Middle Course: The river enters the plain in its middle course. The volume of water increases with the confluence of many tributaries and thus increases the load of the river. Thus, the predominant action of a river is transportation. Deposition also occurs due to the sudden decrease in velocity. The river in the middle course develops some typical landforms like alluvial fans, flood plains, meanders, ox-bow lakes etc.,
(iii) The Lower course: The river, moving downstream across a broad, level plain is leaded with debris, brought down from its upper and middle courses. Large deposits of sediments are found at the level bed and the river, splits into a number of channels called distributaries. The main work of the river here is deposition and it develops typical landforms like delta and estuary.

Sustainable economic development is taken to mean development without damaging the environment and not compromising with the needs of the future generation. The consequences of environmental degradation do not respect national or state boundaries. Sustainability of development is comparatively a new area of knowledge in which scientists, economists, philosophers and other social scientists are working together. Natural resources can be divided into renewable resources and non-renewable resources. Groundwater is an example of a renewable resource. The question arises as to how sustainable development is possible if the resources are over-used rather than getting replenished. Nonrenewable resources get exhausted after certain number of years of extracting and using them and they cannot be replenished. To achieve real sustainability, we need to balance economic, social and environmental sustainability in equal harmony. In general, the question of development or progress is continuous. At all times, as a member of society and as individuals, we need to ask where we want to go, what we wish to become and what our goals are.

Mobilising people towards socially productive activities that lead to the overall betterment of people's lives is essential. Sometimes earthquakes, tsunamis, floods and other such natural disasters on a massive scale occur and people's immediate mobilisation for evacuation and emergency relief becomes most essential.
Democratic Participation: Democracy can succeed only when smaller local groups and, in fact, every citizen can take action that supports the tax and revenue collection systems, observance of national norms in environmental protection, cleanliness, health and hygiene, sanitary drives and immunisation programmes like pulse polio. However, we must keep in mind that there is no better form of government than Democratic government. To create a better society and nation, the people of India along with the union and state governments should come together to fight against the miseries of human life.

Though democracy in India has been appreciated worldwide for its working, there is still a lot of scope for improvement. The above-mentioned steps must be taken to ensure smooth functioning of democracy in the country.
Indian democracy can be successful and vibrant only when its citizens imbibe and reflect in their behavior the basic democratic values like equality, freedom, social justice, accountability and respect for all. Their mindset, thinking and behavior are expected to be in tune with the essential conditions of democracy. They have to appreciate the opportunities for their desired roles like participation, making the system accountable, fulfilling obligations, and playing proactive roles to actualize the goals of democracy.

Buddhism declined in India due to the following reasons:
1. Buddhism was popular in the beginning because it was preached in people's language (Pali). The later texts were written in Sanskrit, which was difficult for the common people to understand.
2. The split in Buddhism into Hinayana and Mahayana was another vital reason. Image 0" worship in Mahayana made no difference between Hinduism and Buddhism.
3. Buddhism lost its royal patronage during the reign of Guptas.
4. Further, the invasions of Huns and Turks almost wiped out Buddhism.

The word 'Tsunami' is a Japanese term, meaning harbour waves. It is adapted to describe large seismically generated sea waves caused by Earthquakes, submarine explosions and landslides. These waves travel at a great speed (more than 500 km per hour) and the length of the waves exceeds 600 km. These waves reach to a height of more than 15 m near the sea shore and are capable of causing destruction along the coastal area.
The 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake that caused tsunami is.the sixth-deadliest natural disaster which travelled at a speed of 6.00km per hour with an estimated death toll of 2,80,000. The Earthquake which occurred near Indonesia at 00.58 hours took nearly 7 hours to reach Chennai.

(i) Archaeological excavation refers to systematically digging a site to recover material evidence for exploring and interpreting societies of the past.
(ii) Archaeological excavations at the early historic sites are the source of evidence of the activities of the Sangam Age people.
(iii) Excavations at Arikkamedu, Azhagankulam, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaveripoom pattinam, Korkai, Vasavasamudram, Keezhadi, Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, and. Pattanam in Kerala provide the evidence we have of this period.
(iv) Arikkamedu, near Puducherry, is a Sangam Age port, excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). British archaeologist, Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler, French Archaeologist, J.M. Casal, and Indian archaeologists, A. Ghosh and Krishna Deva, excavated this site. They found evidence of a planned town, warehouse, streets, tanks and ring wells.

(i) The culture that domesticated animals and cultivated crops is called Neolithic.
(ii) It is known as the New Stone Age. The Neolithic people used polished stone axes called celts.
(iii) Cattle rearing was their main occupation. They lived in small villages with houses made of thatched roof and walls plastered with clay.
(iv) Evidence of Neolithic village is found at Payyampalli in Vellore district and a few sites in the Dharmapuri region.
(v) Payyampalli is a village in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu. The earliest evidence for the domestication of animals and cultivation of plants is found at this site, which was excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India.
(vi) Evidence for pottery making and cultivation of horse gram and green gram has been found in this village.
(vii) These Neolithic sites were part of the Southern Neolithic Culture of India. They are mainly concentrated in the Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka regions.
(viii) The Neolithic people used stone axes fitted on a wooden handle .
(ix) These polished stone axes are worshipped in many village temples of Tamil Nadu even today.

(i) The similarity of the graffiti found on the megalithic burial pots of South India with the Indus script and the identical place names of Tamil Nadu and Indus region of Pakistan are presented as arguments to establish the relationship between the Indus civilisation and Tamil culture
(ii) Researchers like Father Henry Heras, Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan find similarity between the Indus script and the Dravidian Tamil language.
(iii)  Archaeological evidence points out that several groups of people have been living in Tamil Nadu and South India continuously from the Mesolithic period.
(iv) A few groups from the Indus region might have migrated into southern India.
(v) Some of the ideas and technologies of the Indus civilisations had reached South India in the Iron Age.
(vi) The carnelian beads, shell bangles and bronze mirrors found in the Megalithic/Early Historic sites of Tami Nadu were first introduced by the people of the Indus civilisation, More research is needed to arrive at any definite conclusion in this matter.
(vii) The towns of ancient Tamilagam such as Arikkamedu, Uraiyur and Keezhadi that flourished are part of the second urbanisation of India and these towns are much different from the Indus cities. These towns emerged approximately 1,200 years after the decline of the Indus civilisation.

The structure of employment denotes the number of workers engaged in different sectors of the economy.
Primary Sector: Agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, poultry, dairy farming, fishing, etc.
Secondary Section: Manufacturing, small and large scale industries and constructional activities.
Tertiary Sector: Transport insurance banking, trade, communication, real estate, government and non-government services.
In developing countries like India that a large work force will be engaged in Primary Sector, while a small proportion in Secondary and Tertiary sectors.

Both assertion (A) and reason (R) are true; R explains A

(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) explains (A)

(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) explains (A)