c) The terms Vanikan and Nigama appear in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions were different types of merchants.

a) Evidence of iron smelting has been found in Kodumanal and Guttur.

(i) Tamil country had connections with countries overseas both in the east and west.
(ii) Roman ships used monsoon winds to cross the Western Sea or the Arabian Sea to connect Tamilagam with the Western world.
(iii) Spices including pepper, ivory, and precious stones were exported.
(iv) Metal including gold, silver and copper and precious stones were imported.
 

(i) The Tamil rulers were independent of Mauryan authority because Ashokan inscriptions found in present day Odisha, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh are not seen in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
(ii) So we can conclude the status of Tamil rulers.

1. Excavations at Arikkamedu, Azhagankulam, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaveripoompattinam, Korkai, Vasavasamudram, Keezhadi, Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, and Pattanam in Kerala provide the evidence we have of this period.
2. Archaeological excavations at the early historic sites are the source of evidence of the activities of the Sangam Age people.

1. Sangam age has its roots in the Iron age.
2. In the iron age people were organised into chiefdoms.
3. From such communities of Iron Age emerged the Vendhars of the early historic period.
4. The Velirs of the Sangam Age were chieftains.
5. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka conquered Kalinga and Karnataka.
6. But Ashokan inscriptions are not seen in Tamil Nadu, Therefore we may conclude that the Tamil rulers were independent of Mauryan authority.
7. Among the political powers of the Sangam Age the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas occupied pre eminent position. They were known as Muvendhars.
8. The Muvendhars controlled the major towns and ports of the Sangam period.
9. The Cheras ruled over the region of present day Kerala and Western part of Tamil Nadu.
10. The Cholas ruled over the Kaveri delta and Northern parts of Tamil Nadu.
11. The Pandyas ruled the sourthdrn part of Tamil Nadu with Madurai as their capital.
12 Apart from the Vendhars there were Velirs and numerous chieftains.
13. Sangam poems write extensively about the generosity of the people.

(a) As cattle were considered an important source of wealth, raiding cattle owned by adjoining. tribes and clans was common practice in a pastoral society.
(b) Tribal chieftains plundered the cattle wealth of enemies whose warriors fought to protect their cattle.
(c) (i) Many warriors died in such battles and were remembered as martyrs.
(ii) Memorial stones were erected in their honour.
(d) Which Tamil text describes the procedures for erecting hero stones?