(i) Expansion of trade.
(ii) The Production of more food.
(iii) Emergence of factory workers as a new class.
(iv) Development in transport and communication.

(i) By the end of the nineteenth century, France had became prominent for its automobiles.
(ii) In 1898 Louis Renault built the quadricycle. He began to produce in large quantities under his company the Societe Renault Freres (Company Renault Brothers).

(i) A labour protest took place on 4 May 1886 at Hay market square in Chicago.
(ii) It began as a peaceful rally in support of workers striking for an eight hour day resulted in the killing of several workers by the police.
(iii) To commemorate the Haymarket Affair 1 May 1887 is observed as the Labour day or May day or International Workers Day.

(i) With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, England became the workshop of the world.
(ii) There was however a general decline in agriculture.
(iii) This resulted in the flow of population from village to industrial towns.
(iv) Population growth, migration and urbanization were the social changes taking place.
(v) In pre-industrial society over 80% of people lived in rural areas.
(vi) As the migration from the country side began to intensify small towns became large cities.

(i) Home charges - the dividends on East Indias stock, interest on debt, savings from salaries and the pensions of officers and establishments and buildings in the India office, London, transporting cost of British troops to and from India.
(ii) This drain of wealth in the form of Home charges in course of time rose to 16 million pounds per year.

(i) Pennycuick was an army engineer and civil servant who also served as a member of the Madras legislative council.
(ii) He decided to divert the west flowing Periyar river draining into the Arabian sea to the east, so that it could irrigate lakhs of acres of dry land dependent on the Vaigai river.
(iii) Though Pennycuick and other British engineers went ahead with the construction braving nature's fury and the dangers of poisonous insects and wild animals, the construction was disrupted by relentless rain.
(iv) Since he could not get adequate funds from the British government, Pennycuick went to England and sold his family property to mobilise money to fund the project which was completed in 1895.
(v) The Mullai Periyar Dam continues to irrigate agricultural lands in Theni, Dindigul, Madurai, Sivagangai and Ramanathapuram districts.

(i) The Zulu tribe was known for its strong fighting spirit.
(ii) They were represented by renowned warriors like Shaka Zulu.
(iii) Shaka Zulu played a prominent role in building the largest Zulu nation in South-Eastern Africa. 
(iv) British troops invaded Zulu territory and divided it into thirteen chiefdoms.
(v) The Zulus never regained their independence and they had to fight against deeply entrenched racism in South Africa for about a century.

(i) The critical moment came after the king shut out the commoners and the latter assembled in the Tennis-court and took an oath that they would not disperse until they found a way out to their problems.
(ii) The king tried to use force but his own soldiers refused to obey his orders.
(ii) King Louis then intrigued to get foreign regiments to shoot down his own people.
(iii) This provoked the people to rise in revolt in Paris on 14 July 1789.
(iv) They stormed the Bastille prison and set free all the prisoners.
(v) The fall of Bastille was the first great turning point in the French revolution.

(i) Lafayette who participated in the American war of Independence came back with democratic ideals and played an active role in the French revolution.
(ii) During the French revolution he served as the Commander in Chief of French National guards.

CLERGY:
(i) Men and Women ordained for religious duties.
(ii) The clergy, despite being a minority occupied a prominent position in France.
(iii) They were exempted from taxation.
(iv) They collected tithe (one tenth of annual produce or earnings) from the common people.
THE NOBLES:
(i) Wealthy land owners.
(ii) Enjoying feudal rights.
(iii) Exemption from taxation.
(iv) They collected feudal dues from the peasants.
(v) The Nobles enjoyed hunting rights.
THE MIDDLE CLASS AND THE PEASANTS:
(i) The peasants paid taxes to the state such as taille (land tax) gabelle (Salt tax).
(ii) Burdened by the demands of the state, nobility and clergy the peasants were in despair at the prospect of dying of starvation.

(i) In 1792 the revolutionary commune of Paris enforced Martial law and ordered an attack on the king's palace.
(ii) The king ordered shooting by his Swiss guards.
(iii) The people of Paris angered by the action of the Swiss guards in shooting and killing hunted down the supporters of monarchy under their leader Marat.
(iv) In three days, from September 2 about 1500 suspected dissidents were put in prison.
(v) After a trial, they were killed and this incident is called "September Massacres".

(i) The British Parliament repeated the Townshend Acts. But it retained the tax on tea.
(ii) This harmed the local tea trade and so it was decided to boycott this tea. In many places the colonists obstructed the import of tea.
(iii) In NewYork and Philadelphia ships carrying tea were blocked.
(iv) In December 1773, a group of men disguised themselves as Native Americans boarded the Cargo vessels and threw the tea overboard which was hailed as the Boston Tea party.
(v) It was a challenge which led to war between the rebellious colonies and England.

(i) Quakers were the society of friends established by George Fox in England.
(ii) They were laying emphasis on Holy Spirit rejected out ward rites and an ordered ministry.
(iii) Quakers have the reputation of activity working for peace and opposing war.

(i) Reformers who led a religious movement to reform the church of England dispensing with the teachings and practice of Roman Catholic Church were known as puritans.
(ii) The Stuart kings James I and Charles I did not tolerate their attempts to reform the Church of England.
(iii) The persecution of Puritans prompted many to leave England and settle in the colonies.

1. In the first quarter of eighteenth century, in the context of Indian cotton manufactures flooding in England, a law was enacted prohibiting the use of Indian calicoes and silk.
2. The invention of flying shuttle by John Kay and the inventions of Hargreaves, Arkwright and Crompton within thirty years accelerated the process of spinning and weaving.
3. When the British established their foot hold in Bengal as a territorial power the loot from Bengal and the Carnatic provided the required capital and helped accomplish industrial revolution in England.
4. The weavers of Bengal suffered at the hands of the Company's officials and their agents insisted on payment of a transist duty for the commodities they carried from one place to another and later for cultivation of commercial crops required for British industries in England
5. The Engtish deliberately destroyed Indian industry by dumping Indian markets with their machine made cheap cotton piece goods.
6. Because of loss of market for hand - woven cotton goods. India lost her old industrial position and became an exporter of raw material.
7. By the first quarter of the nineteenth century the export of Dacca muslin to England stopped.
8. Even the export of raw cotton from India had steadily dwindled owing to the competition from U.S.A.
9. Weavers who were eking out an independent livelihood were thrown out of employment because of flooding of British factory made cheap cotton fabrics in Indian markets.
10. To escape starvation deaths, peasants and artisans had to move out of the country opting to work on plantations in British Empire Colonies as indentured labours under wretched service and living conditions.

1. A shift from manual labour based to more technical and machine based manufacturing industry marked the industrial revolution in the United States.
2. Samuel Slater a citizen of England having worked at a cotton mill from the age of 10 had gained enough experience to operate a mill.
3. On learning that Americans were interested in the new techniques, Slater departed for New York in 1789 illegally Slater offered his service to Moses Brown, who had earlier made an unsuccessful attempt to operate a mill.
4. Brown agreed and in consequence the mill became operational in 1793 being the first water-powered roller spinning textile mill in America.
5. By 1800, Slater's mill had been duplicated by many other intrepreneurs as Slater grew wealthier and his techniques became more and more popular.
6. Andrew Jackson the U.S. President hailed him as Father of the American Industrial revolution.
7. In the Nineteenth Century America began to show technological innovation.
8. Robert Fulton established the steam boat service on the Hudsen river.
9. Samuel E.B Morses invented the telegraph and Elias Howe inverted the sewing machine. This was the main cause for the industrialisation.
10. In 1869 the first transcontinental rail road was completed to transport people, raw materials and products.
11. The invention of electric bulb of Thomas Alva Edison and telephone by Alexander Graham Bell changed the world beyond recognition.

(i) Until the last quarter of the nineteenth century Africa, South of the Sahara was almost unknown to the outside world.
(ii) The interior of Africa was unexplored.
(iii) After 1875 European penetration and colonisation began on a large scale.
(iv) European colonisation of Africa was thus accomplished smoothly without any out1break of war against major European powers.
(v) This invasion, occupation, colonisation and annexation of African territories by Europen powers between 1881 and 1914, the era of Imperialism is called the scramble for Africa.
or the partition of Africa.

(i) Lord Cornwallis created Zaminders and Landlords for the first time in India and collected revenue. This settlement made with the zaminders was called as the permanent settlement.
(ii) The Ryotwari system was a different revenue system introduced in south India.
(iii) Under this system the peasant was the proprietor and paid tax on land. The government deal with him directly. He was entitled to remain in possession of land acquired by him, so long as he paid the land revenue.
(iv) As no credit facilities were provided by the state they had to depend on money lenders to borrow money.
(v) The colonial state pursued a policy of commercialization of agriculture.
(vi) The peasant's bid to clear his debt and to pay up the revenue dues to the state instead of producing for home consumption, the peasants began to raise crop for the market.
(vi) Even than the money earmarked for irrigation was meagre, but due to the initiative of some well meaning British officials and engineers irrigation became possible in certain areas, but they collected more taxes.
(vii) The policy of free trade and the forcible collection of land revenue resulted in the out break of famines.
(viii) The Indentured labour system was a form of debt bondage, by which many Indians were transported to various British colonies.

There were many notable thinkers and writers in France in the eighteenth century. The important among them were
1. Voltaire
2. Jean Jacques Rousseau
3. Monstesquieu
VOLTAIRE:
(i) He was the most famous writer of the time on rationalistic and scientific subjects.
(ii) He criticised the church in his writings.
(iii) His famous work was 'Candide'.
(iv) He is said to have once exclaimed "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it".
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU:
(i) Another, great writer a contemporary of Voltaire but younger than him.
(ii) His political theory set the minds of many afire with new ideas and new resolves.
(iii) His ideas played an important part in preparing the people of France for the great revolution.
(iv) He famously said in his book Social contract "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains".
(v) He argued that the laws are binding only when they are supported by the general will of the people.
MONTESQUIEU:
(i) Montesquieu who wrote, 'The personal letters' and 'The spirit of the laws' also defended liberty.
(ii) He put forward the theory of separation of powers.
(iii) The liberty of the individual would be best protected only in a government where the powers of its three organs, viz, legislature, executive and judiciary were separate.
(iv) It would put in place the necessary checks and balances to prevent any one organ from assuming more Power to itself.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA:
(i) An encyclopaedia also came out in Paris about this time and this was full of articles Diderat by and Jean di Alembert.
(ii) These philosophers and thinkers opposed religious intolerance and political and social privileges. They succeeded in provoking large numbers of ordinary people to think and act.

(i) The Seven years war of 1756 - 63 between Britain and France had center on the control of colonies especially in North America.
(ii) Britain defeated France and took control of Canada.
(iii) But the war cost the English heavily.
(iv The British ministers proposed that the American colonists pay some of the cost of the war.
(v) So a series of taxes were imposed on the colonists.

(vi) The American colonists protested against all the above taxes.
(vii) The British Parliament did not give representation to the colonists.
(viii) The colonies did not begin fighting for the sake of independence.
(ix) Their grievances were taxation and restrictions on trade.
(x) They challenged the right of the British parliament to tax them against their will.
(xi) George Washington became the commander-in-cheif of the colonists army.
(xii) "No taxation without representation" was their famous battle cry.