(i) The ancient Greeks created the world's first democracy. Athens started on with a monarchy and then advanced to an oligarchy until it finally reached a democracy.
(ii) The Greek Alphabet was the first alphabet in the western sense of the word, featuring distinct letters for vowels and consonants.
(iii) The first library in the world, the library of Alexandria was actually built in Egypt.
(iv) The Olympic games started in ancient Greece specially in the city of Olympia.
(v) Science and Mathematics - Eratosthenes was the first mathematician to calculate the circumference of the Earth. Aristarchus, Archimedes and Hipparchus were great mathematicians and scientists.
(vi) One of the common examples of Greek Architecture in the modular world is the Column in Pillar.
(vii) Greek mythology has pervaded nearly every form of popular culture imaginable. Many Greek myths have been adapted into modem novels, movies, TV, shows etc.
(viii) The first lighthouse in the world was located in the Greek controlled Egyptian Kingdom of Alexandria.
(ix) The democratic people of ancient Greece, especially Athens, were the first to employ trial by jury as we know it today.

(i) Feudalism was born out of chaos and disorder in the society.
(ii) Under Feudalism the king was the head of the feudal regime.
(iii) Immediately after him were the great nobles, known as dukes, counts, earls.
(iv) The relationship was one of a vassal.
(v) The nobles in turn had vassals of their own, dividing and distributing their fief to lesser nobles called viscounts or barons.
(vi) Last in this order were the knights, whose fiefs cannot be divided.
(vii) At the bottom were the villeins or serfs.
(viii) In the feudal system which centred around vassalage, there was no idea of equality or freedom.
(ix) There were only rights and obligations.
(x) The Bishops, Abbots and Cardinals and the Church came under this socio-political structure.
(xi) The nobility and the clergy did not do any physical work only peasants and artisans were taxed.
(xii) They new class traders formed guilds, became wealthy enough to defy even the nobles and the kings.
(xiii) This development led to the end of Feudalism.

(i) Christianity underwent many significant developments during the later Middle Ages.
(ii) The most important were in matters of doctrine and religious practices.
(iii) New elements were included in Christian theology like theory of priesthood and the theory of sacraments.
(iv) Excommunication and Interdict were the two instruments used against those who defied the Church.

(i) Mongols' remarkable leader was Chengiz Khan.
(ii) He was a great military genius.
(iii) His religion was Shamanism, a worship of the "Everlasting Blue Sky".
(iv) Mongols' hold over Russia for about 300 years made Russia technologically backward from the rest of Europe until the end of Middle Ages.

(i) Baghdad- a city known as the city of Arabian Nights, was a vast city of palaces and public offices and schools and colleges, and great shops and parks and gardens.
(ii) The merchants carried on a vast trade with the East and West.
(iii) Visitors came to Baghdad from all over the world especially learned men and students and artists

(i) The Ming Empire, which replaced the Mongol empire, consciously discouraged industry and foreign trade in order to concentrate on agriculture.
(ii) This resulted in China lagging behind in the 16th century. Other parts of Eurasia, building on the techniques of the Chinese, began to march ahead.

1. As a result of the discovery of new lands and new sea routes, the economic centre of Europe shifted from the Italian city states to spain and Portugal.
2. They brutally killed the natives in their conquest and the remaining were employed under harsh conditions in gold and silver mines, and in plantations.
3. Many natives also died because of epidemic diseases brought by the colonizers.
4. The native people faced the dangers of deadly diseses.
5. The natives had to encounter from these deadly diseases.
6. The introduction of sugarcane led to the establishment of sugarcane plantations in the Caribbean islands and South America.
7. The mass extinction of the native population led to the import of slaves from Africa. Africa became the centres of slave trade.
8. Geographical discoveries led to commercial revolution.
9. The seventeenth century witnessed the emergence of various East India companies.
10. They are English East India Company the Dutch East India Company and the French East India Company.
11. The Portuguese enforced its monopoly on the spice trade of East Indies.
12. The Spaniards established monopoly over the mining and transportation of gold and silver in its colonies in the New World.
13. The English East India Company had monopoly trade in India and amassed huge wealth.
14.  Thus, the chief feature of mercantilism was exploitation of the resources of the colonies for the benefit of the colonisers.
15. It represented an important stage in the development of modern capitalism.

(i) Jesus was against the rich and the hypocrites.
(ii) Jesus condemned certain observances and ceremonials.
(iii) This was not to the liking of the priests.
(iv) So they turned against Jesus and handed him over to the Roman Governor Pontius Pilate.

(i) Under Alexander the Great, the Greeks were able to establish a kingdom in Macedonia.
(ii) This kingdom succeeded in annexing two historic empires of Egypt and the Middle East.
(iii) But the entire period of Alexander's reign was spent on wars.
(iv) The Greek school of Science, Mathematics and Philosophy reached its peak in the Greek- Egyptian city of Alexandria.

(i) The first Persian attack on Greece failed.
(ii) This was due to the fact that Persian army suffered from disease and lack of food, during its march.
(iii) During the second attack, they avoided the land route and came by sea. 3.

(i) The newly established Holy Roman Empire represented Christianity and Christendom and, hence, it was designated holy.
(ii) The emperor was supposed to be a Representative of God on earth like the Pope. The emperor dealt with political matters, while the Pope dealt with the spiritual.
(iii) Charlemagne, the king of Franks, was the first Holy Roman Emperor.
(iv) He was a contemporary of Pallava king Nandivarman II and Pratihara ruler Nagabatta I

(i) Larger manufacturing units, employing many craftsmen, are called as Karkhanas.
(ii) Karkhanas were up under Mughol State.

(i) He reversed the policy of discriminatory measures against the Hindus.
(ii) He employed Hindu administrators like Todar Mal in key positions of authority.
(iii) These initiatives earned the emperor the loyalty and trust of the majority community.
(iv) The entire region was brought under a uniform administrative structure.
(v) The political stability increased the economy and trade

(i) The impact of Muslim rule was felt during the reign of Alauddin Khalj i.
(ii) He sent military campaigns to south under his commander Malik Kafur.
(iii) The primary objective was to plunder the wealth, rather than to expand his territory.
(iv) Devagiri (near Aurangabad) was captured by Alauddin Khalji. He renamed it as Daulatabad.
(v) It was the second stronghold of his growing kingdom.

(a) Lopo Gonzalves:
(i) Lopo Gonzalves was the first sailor to cross the equator. Till then sailors did not dare to venture beyond, as they harboured fears about boiling waters and sea monsters.
(b) Bartholomew Diaz:
(i) ventured further down the African coast reaching cape point or the southern tip of Africa in 1487 A.D. He named it the Cape of Storms as he encountered fierce storms there. King John II of Portugal renamed it as Cape of Good Hope as it provided hope to reach India by sea.

(i) Inquisition was an institution of the Catholic Church to deal with heresies beliefs in opposition to the Catholic faith.
(ii) Those found guilty and who recanted were awarded milder punishments and imprisonment.
(iii) Those who refused to recant were burnt at the stake

(i) The origin of the word renaissance is from the Italian word renascita meaning rebirth.
(ii) It is called renaissance because there was a rebirth or revival of classical Greek and Latin literature