1. Craft production and craft specialization were important aspects of urbanization.
2. In the Sangam Age there were professional groups that produced various commodities.
3. The system of production of commodities is called industry.
4. Pottery was practised in many settlements. People used pottery produced by kalam ceyks in their daily activities and so they were made in large numbers.
5. Black ware, russet-coated painted ware, black and red ware potteries were the different types of pottery used.
6. Iron manufacturing was an important artisanal activity. Iron smelting was undertaken in traditional furnaces.
7. Furnaces and raw ore have been found in many archaeological sites.
8. Sangam Age literature mentioned about the Iron manufacturing.
9. They produced Iron implements required for agriculture and warfare (sword, daggers and spears).

Merits:
(i) As the voters elect their representatives directly, direct elections are considered to be a more democratic method of election.
(ii) It educates people regarding the government activities and helps in choosing the appropriate candidates. Also, it encourages people to play an active role in politics.
(iii) It empowers people and makes the rulers accountable for their actions.
Demerits:
(i) Direct elections are very expensive.
(ii) Illiterate voters sometimes get misguided by false propaganda and sometimes campaigning based on caste, religious and various other sectarian consideration spose serious challenges.
(iii) Since conducting direct elections is a massive exercise, ensuring free and fair elections at every polling station is a major challenge to the Election Commission.
(iv) There are instances of some political candidates influencing the voters through payments in the form of cash, goods or services.
(v) Election campaigns sometimes results in violence, tension, law and order problems and affects the day-to-day life of people.

WIND
(i) The horizontal movement of air along the surface of the earth is called the 'wind'.
(ii) The vertical movement of air is called an 'Air current',
(iii) The winds always blow from a high pressure area to a low pressure area.
PLANETARY WINDS
(i) The winds which constantly blow in the same direction throught the year are called the planetary winds.
(ii) These winds are Trade winds, Westerlies and Polar Easterlies.
TRADE WINDS
(i) Trade winds blow from the sub-trophical high pressure belt to the Equatorial low pressure belt in both the hemisphere.
(ii) They blow in a constant direction throughout the year.
(iii) These winds were very helpful to traders who depended on the winds while sailing in the seas.
WESTERLIES
(i) Westerlies are the permanent wind that blow from the tropical high plressure belt to the sub polar low pressure belt in both the hemispheres.
(ii) The velocity of Westerlies become vigorous.
(iii) It is called Roaring forties at 40^o, Furious fifties at 50^o and Screaming sixties at 60^o latitudes.
POLAR EASTERLIES:
(i) Polar easterlies are cold and dry polar winds that blow from the high pressure belt to the sub polar low pressure belt.

Democracy is the dominant form of government in the contemporary world. It has not faced a serious challenge or a rival so far. In the last hundred years, there has been an expansion of democracy all over the world. The various aspects of democracy and its challenges are:
1. Illiteracy
2. Poverty
3.. Gender discrimination
4. Regionalism
5. Casteism, communalism and religious fundamentalism
6. Corruption
7. Criminalisation of politics.
8. Political violence

1. The writing of Egyptians were called hieroglyphic.
2. This form of writing used a pictogram based system.
3. Hieroglyphic was used in inscriptions on seals and other objects.
4. Many texts and books were written using this script.
5. The Egyptian writing system was deciphered by the French scholar Franco is Champollion cuneiform.
6. Cuneiform is the Sumerian writing system.
7. The shape of the letter is in the form of wedge and hence it is called cuneiform
8. It is one of the earliest scripts of the world.
9. The epic of Gilgamesh was written in this script.
10 The Sumerians used this script for commercial transactions and writing letters and stories.
11. The clay tablets contain loads of information on the Sumerian civilisation.

(i) Five cardinal principles of Confucius Ethics are Humaneness, Righteousness propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness.
(ii) Confucius said that wisdom grows from the family.
(iii) The foundation of society is the disciplined individual in an orderly family.
(iv) The superior man according to him is not merely intelligent or scholarly but his character should be exemplary.
(v) The superior man of Confucius possesses three virtues; intelligence, courage and good will.
(vi) He clearly proposed that when the command is wrong a son should resist his father and a minister should resist the prince.
(vii) He said that there are three requisites for government. "They are sufficiency of food, sufficiency of military equipment and confidence of the people in their ruler.

Constructive Effects: Volcanic materials enrich the soil fertility that promotes agricultural activities. The hot volcanic region helps in generating geothermal energy. Many dormant and active volcanoes are the most attractive tourist spots of the world. Most of the volcanic materials are used as building materials.
Destructive Effects: Volcanic eruption causes Earthquakes, fast floods, mudslide and rock fall. Lava can travel very far and bum, bury or damage anything in its path: The large amount of dust and ash makes breathing hard and irritable. Volcanic eruptions can alter the weather conditions and disrupt transport (Iceland volcanic eruption) in and around the volcanic region.

(i) The history of humans is closely related to the history of the earth.
(ii) The earth contains geological, archaeological and biological records of historical times in its upper layers.
(iii) They are important for reconstructing the history of the earth and various living organisms.
(iv) The fossil bones of the human ancestors are embedded in the earth's layers.
(v) Palaeoanthropologists and archaeologists excavate the soil and rock layers on the earth and extract evidence about human ancestors.
(vi) These layers and the fossils are scientifically dated to study the various stages in human evolution and prehistory.
(vii) Through the gathered evidence they attempt to understand the evolution of human history and developments in a chronological order.·
(viii) The earth was formed approximately 4.54 billion years ago.
(ix) Gradually conditions emerged for the growth of organisms. Then plants and animals came into being and thereby foundation was laid for the evolution of humans. The long span of time in earth's history is divided into eras, periods and epochs by the Geologists. Thus the history of humans is closely related to the history of the earth.