(i) Lafayette who participated in the American war of Independence came back with democratic ideals and played an active role in the French revolution.
(ii) During the French revolution he served as the Commander in Chief of French National guards.

(i) In 1792 the revolutionary commune of Paris enforced Martial law and ordered an attack on the king's palace.
(ii) The king ordered shooting by his Swiss guards.
(iii) The people of Paris angered by the action of the Swiss guards in shooting and killing hunted down the supporters of monarchy under their leader Marat.
(iv) In three days, from September 2 about 1500 suspected dissidents were put in prison.
(v) After a trial, they were killed and this incident is called "September Massacres".

(i) Reformers who led a religious movement to reform the church of England dispensing with the teachings and practice of Roman Catholic Church were known as puritans.
(ii) The Stuart kings James I and Charles I did not tolerate their attempts to reform the Church of England.
(iii) The persecution of Puritans prompted many to leave England and settle in the colonies.

There were many notable thinkers and writers in France in the eighteenth century. The important among them were
1. Voltaire
2. Jean Jacques Rousseau
3. Montesquieu
VOLTAIRE:
(i) He was the most famous writer of the time on rationalistic and scientific subjects.
(ii) He criticised the church in his writings.
(iii) His famous work was 'Candide'.
(iv) He is said to have once exclaimed "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it".
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU:
(i) Another, great writer a contemporary of Voltaire but younger than him.
(ii) His political theory set the minds of many afire with new ideas and new resolves.
(iii) His ideas played an important part in preparing the people of France for the great revolution.
(iv) He famously said in his book Social contract "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains".
(v) He argued that the laws are binding only when they are supported by the general will of the people.
MONTESQUIEU:
(i) Montesquieu who wrote, 'The personal letters' and 'The spirit of the laws' also defended liberty.
(ii) He put forward the theory of separation of powers.
(iii) The liberty of the individual would be best protected only in a government where the powers of its three organs, viz, legislature, executive and judiciary were separate.
(iv) It would put in place the necessary checks and balances to prevent any one organ from assuming more Power to itself.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA:
(i) An encyclopaedia also came out in Paris about this time and this was full of articles Diderot by and Jean d'Alembert.
(ii) These philosophers and thinkers opposed religious intolerance and political and social privileges. They succeeded in provoking large numbers of ordinary people to think and act.