One

Parthenocarpy.

1. Emasculation is the process of removal of stamens from a bisexual flower before they shed pollen in order to prevent self-pollination and permit cross-pollination of stigma with desired pollen. During breeding, the breeder wants to make sure that the desired pollen grains are used for pollination and the stigma is protected from contamination (from unwanted pollen).
2. A plant breeder employs this technique to select and incorporate specific traits in the progeny.

Apple is called a false fruit because it develops from the thalamus (enlarged structure at the base of the flower) instead of ovary.

The fruits selected to induce parthenocarpy can be watermelon, papaya, etc. It is because these fleshy fruits have a large number of seeds, which interfere with the preparation of jams, jellies, etc.

1. Self-incompatibility:  A condition wherein the pollen is ineffective in fertilizing the same flower or other flowers on the same plant usually due to inhibition of the growth of the pollen tube in the stigma and style, thereby preventing delivery of male gametes to the ovules.
2. Maturation of pistil before that of stamen (protogyny) or maturation of stamen before that of the pistil (protandry) inhibit self-pollination.

(a) In plant breeding experiments, pollen from the selected male parent only, are used for pollination.
To prevent contamination of the stigma by any other pollen grain, the pistillate flowers are bagged.
(b) Continued self-pollination leads to inbreeding depression; hence to discourage self-pollination, outbreeding devices have been developed by flowers.

In wind pollinated flowers,
(i) The stamens are well-exposed, so that pollen grains are easily dispersed in wind currents.
(ii) The stigma is large and often feathery, to easily trap the air-borne pollen grains.
(iii) The pollen grains are light and non-sticky, to be transported in wind currents.
(iv) Pollen grains are produced in enormous quantity.
(v) Numerous small flowers are packed into an inflorescence.
(vi) There is a single ovule in the ovary of these flowers.

(i) Emasculation refers to the practice of removal of anthers/stamens from a bisexual flower before the pollen grains mature.
(ii) It is necessary to prevent the self-pollen from contaminating the stigma.
(iii) Bagging refers to the covering of the emasculated flowers with a suitable bag made of butter paper; it is essential to prevent contamination of the stigma of the emasculated flower with unwanted pollen grains.
(iv) When the stigma becomes receptive, the pollen grains from the selected flowers are dusted on it and the flower is rebagged for the development of fruits and seeds.
(v) If female parent bears unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation.
(vi) The female flower buds are bagged before they open.
(vi) When the stigma becomes receptive, pollination is carried out with the desired pollen the flowers are rebagged.

In wind pollinated flowers,
(i) The stamens are well-exposed, so that pollen grains are easily dispersed in wind currents.
(ii) The stigma is large and often feathery, to easily trap the air-borne pollen grains.
(iii) The pollen grains are light and non-sticky, to be transported in wind currents.
(iv) Pollen grains are produced in enormous quantity.
(v) Numerous small flowers are packed into an inflorescence.
(vi) There is a single ovule in the ovary of these flowers.

(i) Emasculation refers to the practice of removal of anthers/stamens from a bisexual flower before the pollen grains mature.
(ii) It is necessary to prevent the self-pollen from contaminating the stigma.
(iii) Bagging refers to the covering of the emasculated flowers with a suitable bag made of butter paper; it is essential to prevent contamination of the stigma of the emasculated flower with unwanted pollen grains.
(iv) When the stigma becomes receptive, the pollen grains from the selected flowers are dusted on it and the flower is rebagged for the development of fruits and seeds.
(v) If female parent bears unisexual flowers, there is no need for emasculation.
(vi) The female flower buds are bagged before they open.
(vi) When the stigma becomes receptive, pollination is carried out with the desired pollen the flowers are rebagged.

(a) Development of Pollen grain:
   - Microsporocytes undergo mitotic divisions to increase the number of functional microspore mother cells.
   - Each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form a microspore tetrad.
   - All the four microspores remain enclosed in a common wall.
   - They start separating from each other.
   - The nucleus undergoes a mitotic division resulting in the formation of a large vegetative cell and a small generative cell.
   - The spore develops a wall of two layers the outer- exine and inner intine.
   - At this stage, the pollen grains are liberated; but in some cereals the generative cell undergoes mitosis and the pollen grain is 3-celled, at the time of liberation.
(b) Mature Pollen Grain:
   - A mature pollen grain has a protective covering of two layers.
   - The outer is thick, sculptured variously and is made of sporopollenin; this layer is called exine.
   - The inner layer, called intine is thin and is made of cellulose.
   - A mature pollen grain is two celled with a large vegetative cell and a small generative cell floating in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell.
   - The pollen grains of dicot plants have three germ pores while those of monocots have one.

(a) Development of Pollen grain:
   - Microsporocytes undergo mitotic divisions to increase the number of functional microspore mother cells.
   - Each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form a microspore tetrad.
   - All the four microspores remain enclosed in a common wall.
   - They start separating from each other.
   - The nucleus undergoes a mitotic division resulting in the formation of a large vegetative cell and a small generative cell.
   - The spore develops a wall of two layers the outer- exine and inner intine.
   - At this stage, the pollen grains are liberated; but in some cereals the generative cell undergoes mitosis and the pollen grain is 3-celled, at the time of liberation.
(b) Mature Pollen Grain:
   - A mature pollen grain has a protective covering of two layers.
   - The outer is thick, sculptured variously and is made of sporopollenin; this layer is called exine.
   - The inner layer, called intine is thin and is made of cellulose.
   - A mature pollen grain is two celled with a large vegetative cell and a small generative cell floating in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell.
   - The pollen grains of dicot plants have three germ pores while those of monocots have one.

(a) Differences: 

(b) Pollen-Pistil Interaction.
The stigma/pistil has the ability to recognise the right type of pollen, i.e. the compatible pollen of the same species and rejects the wrong type of pollen grains.
It is the result of interaction between the chemical components of the pollen and those of stigma. - A compatible pollen grain starts its germination on the stigma.
The intine grows out through one of the germ pores as a protuberance.
The contents of the pollen move into this tube, i.e. the tube nucleus (nucleus of the vegetative cell) and the generative cell (or the two male gametes in those species where pollen is liberated in the three-celled stage).
The pollen tube grows through the tissues of stigma and style and enters the ovule through micropyle.
It enters the embryo sac through the filiform apparatus of one of the synergids to liberate the male gametes.
The events from the deposition of pollen on the stigma till the pollen tube enters the ovule, are collectively referred to as pollen-pistil interaction.

(a) Syngamy
Syngamy refers to the fusion of a male gamete with the female gamete in the embryo sac to form a diploid zygote.
Triple fusion
Triple fusion refers to the fusion of a male gamete with the secondary nucleus (formed by fusion of two haploid polar nuclei) to form the triploid primary endosperm nucleus.
(b) Embryo development
Th'e zygote undergoes mitotic divisions during embryogeny.
The first division is transverse and results in a basal cell and a terminal cell; the basal cell forms the suspensor while the terminal cell forms the embryo proper.
It first, forms a filamentous proembryo, which later forms in sequence a globular embryo, heart-shaped embryo and then a mature embryo.

(a) Megaspore
(b) Haploid
(c) (i) Filiform apparatus refers to the special cellular thickenings in the synergids, towards micropylar tip.
(ii) They play an important role in guiding the pollen tube to enter one of the synergids.

(a) The sporogenous cells of anther may directly function as microspore mother cells (also called pollen mother cells or PMCs) or they may undergo a few mitosis to add up to their number before entering meiosis. Each PMC, by a meiotic division, gives rise to a group of four haploid microspores. The aggregates of four microspores are referred to as microspore tetrads.

(b) Mostly all the four spores within a tetrad are completely isolated from one another and from the spores in other tetrads of the locule. Usually the microspores separate from one another shortly after meiosis. However, in some plants the spores tend to remain together in tetrads for longer period and develop into compound pollen grains. In many members of Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae all the microspores in a sporangium remains together to form what is called a pollinium.