Proinces under the Peshwas were of various sizes. Larger provinces were under the provincial governors called Sar-subahdars.
The divisions in the provinces were termed Subahs arid Pranths.
The Mamlatdar and Kamavistar were Peshwa's representatives in the districts. They were responsible for every branch of district administration.
Deshmukhs and Deshpandes were district officers who were in charge of accounts and were to observe the activities of Mamlatdars and Kamavistars.

Chaitanya's concern, unlike that of Kabir, was not with bringing people to an understanding of a God, beyond all creeds and formulations; it was to exalt the superiority of Krishna over all other deities.

1. The industrial revolution in textile production that took place in England reversed this relationship for the first time.
2. India was systematically de-industrialized.
3. Rather than being the world's leading exporter of cloth and textiles, India became a market for Lancashire cottons.
4. Cheap machine-made British goods led to the flooding of lndian markets.
5. Indian cotton piece goods began to lose ground gradually given that machine-made goods were more durable and cost less.

• The Ahmadiya movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed (1835-1908) in 1889 established a different trend.
• While emphasizing the return to the original principles enunciated in the Quran, Ghulam Ahmed became controversial when he claimed to be a Messiah, which was considered heretical by mainstream Islam.
• But he won many converts. His primary work was to defend Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries.
• In social morals the Ahmadiya movement was conservative, adhering to polygamy,veiling of women, and the classical rules of divorce.

1. Humayun became the Emperor once again.
2. He died very soon after regaining Delhi when he slipped down the stairs of the library in the fort at Delhi.
3. In the colorful words of Lane Poole, "Humayun stumbled out of his life, as he has stumbled through it."

1. He made very large donations to many ofthe greatest Siva and Vishnu temples of the day- Srisailam, Tirupati, Kalahasti, Kanchipuram, Tiruvannamalai, Chidambaram, etc.

The taxes collected included irai, kanikadan, iraikattina-kanikadan and kadami. An important category of tax was kudimai.

1. Criminal law was more severe than that of the Gupta age.
2. Mimamsakas were appointed to dispense justice.
3. Banishment and the cutting of limbs of the body were the usual punishments.
4. Trial by ordeal was in practice .
5. Life imprisonment was the punishment for the violations of the laws and for plotting against the king.

1. The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies.
2. The king was also the sovereign ruler.
3. The king levied taxes out of agricultural surplus and redistributed it and ensured maintenance of law and order in a hierarchical society by force and coercion.
4. These features marked the formation of state in the Gangetic plains.

The Mesolithic people lived in semi permanent and temporary settlements.
1. They occupied caves and open grounds.
2. They buried the dead.
3. They had artistic skill.
4. They were spread over wider geographical regions.

Naoroji argued that a great deal of wealth was drained to England in the form of Home Charges. The following constituted the Home Charges:
1. Incentive to the shareholders of the Company
2. Savings and the salaries of European officials, European traders and Planters remitted to England.
3. Pensions to those who retired from civil and military services.
4. The salaries of the staff and the Secretary to Home Government, India Office at London
5. Expenses on wars fought in India and interests for the loans obtained from the banks for the conduct of wars and for the building of railroads.

• Phule held radical views on social, religious, political and economic issues.
• He considered the caste system as an antithesis of the principle of human equality.
• He sought to raise. the morale of the non-Brahmins and united them to revolt against the centuries old inequality and social degradation.
• Towards this end Phule founded the Satya Shodak Samaj (Society for Seeking Truth) in 1875.
• His most important book is Gulamgiri (Slavery).

1. The Raja Krishna Dev of the Kakatiya dynasty with Warangal as capital constructed the Golkonda Fort on a granite hill.
2. During 1495-1496 the fort was handed over to Sultan Kali Kutub Khan as a Jagir (land grant).
3. He reconstructed and rechristened the mud fort into a granite fort and called the place Muhammed Nagar.
4. Later, the Golkonda fort came into the possession of the Bahmani dynasty.
5. Still later, the Qutub Shahi dynasty took over and made Golkonda its capital.
6. Golkonda fort owes much of its present grandeur to Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah, the fifth sultan of Qutb Shahi dynasty.
7. The subsequent generations saw Golkonda being fortified further with several additions and the formation of a beautiful city within.
8. By the 17th century, Golkonda was famous as a diamond market.
9. It gave the world some of the best-known diamonds, including the 'Kohinoor'.
10. The Golkonda Fort is located about 11 kms from Hyderabad on a hill 120 meters hight.
11. The Golkonda Fort is popular for its acoustic architecture.
12. The highest point of the fort is Bala Hissar.
13. There is said to be a secret underground tunnel which leads from the Durbar Hall to one of the palaces at the foot of the hills.

Serfoji's most striking initiative was the founding and management of free elementary and secondary schools for orphans and the poor in Thanjavur city and other adjacent places.
Included were schools for all levels, charity schools, colleges and padashalas for Sanskrit higher learning. The schools catered to the court elites, Vedic scholars, orphans and the poor. I
A second innovation was the introduction of navavidya ('modem' or 'new' learning) in the state-run schools.
In 1822, at the free school in Muktambal Chattiram the king's favourite almshouse established in 1803, 15 teachers taught a total of 464 students of diverse castes, in two classes, in the morning and in the evening.
Serfoji also supported a free school for needy Christians, run by missionaries in the village ofKannandangudi.
Serfoji II established Dhanvantari Mahal, a research institution that produced herbal medicine for humans and animals. Maintaining case-sheets of patients was introduced.
Physicians of modem medicine, Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha schools undertook research on drugs and herbs for medical cure. They produced eighteen volumes of research material.
Serfoji II was a patron of traditional Indian arts like dance and music. He authored Kumarasambhava Champu, Devendra Kuravanji, and Mudra rakshaschaya.
He introduced western musical instruments like clarinet, and violin in Carnatic music.
Serfoji's strategic initiatives in modem education enabled the Thanjavur court elite and subjects to enter and benefit from the emerging colonial social and economic order

1. The bhakti reformers preached the principles of monotheism (oneness of God)
2. They believed in freedom from the cycle of life and death. They advocated that the salvation could be attained only by deep devotion and faith in God.
3. They emphasized the self-surrender for obtaining the bliss and grace of God.
4. Gurus could act as guides and preceptors.
5. They advocated the principle of Universal brotherhood.
6. They criticized idol worship.
7. They stressed the singing of hymns with deep devotion.
8. Arguing that all living beings, including humans, were god's children they strongly denounced caste system which divided people according to their birth.
9. They condemned ritualism, pilgrimages and fasts.
10 They did not consider any language as sacred and composed poems in the language of the common people.

• The origin of the Palayakkarar (poligari) system dates back to the 1530s. It is believed that this system was practiced earlier in Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal.
• The literal meaning of Palayakkarar is the holder of a camp as well as the holder of an estate on military tenure.
• Prior to the enforcement of this system Servaikarars and Talayaris collected fees for police work.
• After the creation of palayams, the Servaikarars turned Palayakkarars and subordinated Talayaris to their authority.
• The Nawab of Arcot, who had borrowed heavily by pledging the villages in several parts of Tamilnadu, entrusted the task of collecting land revenue arrears to the Company administration.
• Yusuf Khan remembered as Khan Sahib, had been employed as commander of the Company's Indian troops. He was entrusted not only with the command of the forces, but also with the collection of revenue.
• At the request of the Nawab, a force of 500 Europeans and 200 sepoys was (1755), ordered to proceed into the countries of Madurai and Tirunelveli to assist him.
• The encroachment of East Indian Company administration into palayakkarar's authority aroused stiff resistance.
• Mafuzkhan (Arcot Nawab's elder brother) was appointed by the Nawab as his representative in those territories. Three Pathan officers, Nawab Chanda Sahib's agents, named Mianah, Mudimiah and Nabikhan Kattak, commanded the Madurai and Tirunelveli regions.
• They supported Tamil palayakkarars against Arcot Nawab Mohamed Ali. Puli Thevar had established close relationships with them.
• The palayakkarars of Uthumalai, Surandai, Thalaivankottai, Naduvakurichi, Singampatti, Urkad, Seithur, Kollamkondan and Wadakarai joined Puli Thevar's confederacy.
• With the promise of restoring Kalakkadu, Puli Thevar had already won over the ruler of Tranvancore to his confederacy.

1. Architectural progress during the Mughals is a landmark in world art.
2. Mughal buildings were noted for the massive structures decorated with bulbous domes, splendorous minarets, cupolas in the four comers, elaborate designs, and pietra dura (pictorial mosaic work).
3. The mosques built during the time of Babur and Humayun are not of much architectural significance.
4. During Akbar's reign, Humayun's tomb was enclosed with gardens and placed on a raised platform.
5. Built by Indian artisans and designed by Persian architects it set a pattern to be followed in the future.
6. The Agra fort built with red sandstone is a specimen where Rajput architectural styles were also incorporated.
7. The new capital city of Akbar Fatehpur Sikri enclosed within its walls several inspiring buildings.
8. The magnificent gateway to Fatehpur Sikri, the Buland Darwaza, built by Akbar with red sandstone and marble is considered to be a perfect architectural achievement.
9. The mausoleum of Akbar and completed by Jahangir includes some Buddhist architectural elements.
10. The tomb of Itimad-ud-daula, father of Nurjahan, built by Jahangir was the first Mughal building built completely with white marble.
11. "Mughal architecture reached its apex during the reign of Shah Jahan.
12. The Taj Mahal is a marble structure on an elevated platform, the bulbous dome in the centre rising on a recessed gateway with four cupolas around the dome and with four free-standing minarets at each of its comers is a monument of universal fame.
13. The Red Fort in Delhi, encompassed by magnificent buildings like Diwan-i Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Mahal and Hira Mahal reflect the architectural skills of the times of Shah Jahan.
14. The Moti Masjid inside the Agra Fort made exclusively of marble, the Jama Masjid in Delhi, with its lofty gateway, series of domes and tall and slender minarets are the two significant mosques built by Shah Jahan.
15. He also established a new township, Shah jahanabad (present-day Old Delhi) where Red Fort and Jama Masjid are located.
16. Aurangzeb's reign witnessed the construction of Badshahi mosque in Lahore and the marble tomb of Rabia ud daurani, known as Bibi-ka-maqbara (Tomb of the Lady) at Aurangabad.
17. The Shalimar Gardens of Jahangir and Shah Jahan are showpieces of Indian horticulture.
18. Mughal architecture influenced even temple construction in different parts of the country.
19. The temple of Govind Dev at Vrindavan near Mathura and Bir Singh's temple of Chaturbhuj at Orchchaa (Madhya Pradesh) display Mughal influence.

Battle of Buxar (1764)
• After fleeing from Bengal Mir Qasim aligned with the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the Nawab of Oudh, Shuja-ud-daulah, who were equally aggrieved by the interference of the Company in their internal affairs.
• They declared war against the British.
• The battle was fought at Buxar (1764).
• By virtue of its superior armed the Company forces won the battle.
• The victory of the British led to the signing of the Treaty of Allahabad (1765) by Robert Clive with Shah Alam II.
• By this treaty the Company got the Diwani right to collect land revenue from the princely states of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
• Besides, the Company obtained three districts, Burdwan, Chifiagong and Midnapur, in Bengal and sovereignty over Calcutta. British virtually became the rulers of Bengal.

1. Chola temples became the arena of social celebrations and functioned as social institutions. They became the hub of societal space in organising social, political, economic and cultural activities.
2. The prime temple officials were koyirramar, koyilkanakku (temple accountant), deva- kanmi (agent of god), srivaisnavar, cantesar (temple manager) and others.
3. They promoted the development of learning, dance, music, painting and drama. A play called Rajarajanatakam, based on the life of Rajaraja I, was performed in the Thanjavur temple.
4. The festivals of ChithiraiTiruvizha, Kartigai and Aippasivizha were celebrated. It is said that singing hymns in temple premises promoted oral literacy.
5. Traditional dance items like kudak-kuthu and sakkaik-kuthu were portrayed in the form of sculptures and paintings in the temples in Kilapalivur, Tiruvorriyur.
6. Nirutya and kama poses are shown in sculptural forms in the Thanjavur big temple. Traditional Tamil musical instruments also were portrayed in this way.
7. Temples functioned as banks by advancing loans and by purchasing and receiving endowments and donations.
8. They also became educational centres as training was imparted in Vedas, music and the arts. Sculpture and metal work too were promoted. Temple accounts were audited and the auditor was called koyilkanakku.

1. Ala-ud-din collected land taxes directly from the cultivators. The village headman who traditionally enjoyed the right to collect them was now deprived of it.
2. The tax pressure of Ala-ud-din was on the rich and not on the poor.
3. Ala-ud-din set up the postal system to keep in touch with all parts of his sprawling empire.

Foreign Notices
The following Greek and Latin sources inform us about the long distance cultural and commercial connections.
1. The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, an ancient Greek text of the first century CE.
2. Pliny the Elder's Natural History, first century CE
3. Ptolemy's Geography, second century CE
4. Vienna Papyrus G 40822, aGreek document datable to the second century CE.
5. A Roman Map called Peutingerian Table

1. State formation and the rigidity of the Vedic religion constrained the liberty of thought and action. A revolt against religious practice of following dogmas found its articulation in heterodox sects.
2. The emergence of territorial identities accelerated the process of socio political and economic changes. The elite class, disillusioned with the system in place, began to move in protest towards the heterodox religions blossoming in Magadha or middle Ganges plains.
3. As the Vedic religion was not fully organised, its reach did not permeate into the society and hence people did not find it difficult to follow the newly emerging religious sects.
4. With urbanisation and expansion of trade, new classes of merchants and bankers such as sethis sought higher social status appropriate to their economic status.
5. The grievance of Kshatriyas was that they were denied a staged life of ashramas, a privilege permitted only to Brahmins in the Vedic texts.

1. The Neolithic cultures of South India have been found mainly in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka and the north-western part of Tamil Nadu.
2. These sites have been spotted in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra and Kaveri.
3. Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri, Maski, Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige and Hallur in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram and Veerapuram in Andhra Pradesh and Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu are the major Neolithic sites in South India.
4. Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Pradesh and Kodekal, Kupgal and Budihal in Karnataka feature ash mound sites.
5. Soft ash and decomposed cow dung layers are also found at this site.
6. The evidence of habitation in the form of houses and burials are found around the ash mounds.
7. Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Pradesh and Kodekal, Kupgal and Budihal in Karnataka feature ash mound sites.

• The Dutch, followed by the English, arrived in Surat in the early years of the 1600s to begin their trading activities.
• The Mughal governor permitted them to trade, and to set up their "factories".

The Prarthana Samaj as an organization never had any great influence but its members, like M. G Ranade (1852-1901), R. G Bhandarkar, and K.T. Telang.

• Pagoda was the dominant currency in use at the time of arrival of European traders. It was a gold coin of Vijayanagar descent.
• It was called varagan in Tamil. During the reign of Tipu Sultan, one pagoda was the equivalent of three and half rupees in Mysore.
• "Shaking the pagoda tree" was a phrase used in England to describe the opportunities for making quick fortunes in India.

1. The fertile areas of the Krishna and the Tungabhadra
2. The coastal areas of Andhra.

1. The Taj Mahal, is the epitome of Mughal architecture, a blend of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles. It was built by the Shah Jahan to immortalize his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
2. The plans for the complex have been attributed to various architects of the period, though the chief architect was Ustad Ahmad Lahawri, an Indian of Persian descent. 
3. The complex - main gateway, garden, mosque and mausoleum (including its four minarets)- were conceived and designed as a unified entity.
4. Building commenced in about 1632. More than 20,000 workers were employed from India, Persia, the Ottoman Empire and Europe to complete the mausoleum by about 1638-39; the adjunct buildings were finished by 1643, and decoration work continued until at least 1647.

1. Iltutmish organized a Corps of Forty, all drawn from Turkish nobility and selected persons from this Forty for appointments in military and civil administration.
2. The Corps of Forty became so powerful to the extent of disregarding the wishes of Iltutmish, and after his death, to place Rukn-ud-Din Firoz on the throne.

1. Mahipala I constructed and repaired several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya.
2. Gopala founded the famous monastery at Odantapura (Bihar).
3. Dharmapala established the Vikramashila and the Somapura Mahaviharas (Bangladesh).

From Rome, the main imports were coin, topaz, antimony, coral, crude glass, copper, tin and lead and wine.

1. The first Nanda ruler was Mahapadma.
2. It is believed that he usurped the throne by murdering the last of the Shishunaga kings.
3. Nandas exterminated many kshatriya clans and subjugated kshatriya-ruled kingdoms.
4. Nanda was succeeded by his eight sons, and they were together known as the navanandas or the nine Nandas.

The Painted Grey ware sites reveal the development of agriculture and pastoralism, and the settlements of this period grew in dimension.