The other less prominent regions, the territories of chiefs such as the Irukkuvels, Ilangovels or Mazhavas or Banas were made part of the Chola state and their chiefs were inducted into the state system as its functionaries

In the Pallava kingdom, kings took high-sounding titles such as Dharma maharajaadhi raja, Maharajadhiraja, Dharma maharaja, Maharaja. In the Hirahadagalli plates the king is introduced as the performer of agnistoma, vajapeya and asvamedha sacrifices.

The sculptures in the temples in Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal reflect the culture of the times.

i) After Malik Kafur's invasion, the Pandya kingdom suffered an eclipse and a Muslim state subordinate to the Delhi Sultan came to be established in Madurai.
ii) In 1335 the Muslim Governor of Madurai Jalal-ud-din Asan Shah threw off his allegiance to Delhi kingdom and declared his independence.

The world famous Khajuraho temple complex consisting of many temples including the Lakshmana temple, Vishwanatha temple and Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built by the Chandelas of Bundelkhand who ruled from Khajuraho.

The slide of the Pala dynasty was accelerated during the rule of his three successors- Rajyapala, Gopala III and Vigramapala II.

Bhaga, Hiranya and Bali were the three kinds of tax collected during Harsha's reign. Bhaga was the land tax paid in kind.

Sresti was usually settled at a particular place and enjoyed an eminent position by virtue of his wealth and influence in the commercial life and administration of the place.

Gupta inscriptions mention the terms klipta, bali, udranga, uparikara, and iranyavesti meant forced labour.

1. Antiacidas who was sent to the court of King Bhagabhadra erected a pillar or garudadhvaja with its capital adorned by a figure of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna(Vasudeva).
2. Heliodorus had evidently become a follower of Vishnu. (The pillar stands in isolation in the middle of a open ground in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.)

Silappathikaram and Manimekalai are the two important epics useful for insights into cultural and religious history.

Three levels of rulers are found:
1) Kizhar,
2) Velir,
3) Vendar

The second inscription mentions lands beyond his borders: "the Chodas (Cholas), the Pandyas, the Satiyaputa, the Keralaputa (Chera), even Tamraparni, the Yonaking Antiyoka (Antiochus), and the kings who are the neighbours of this Antioka".

Vedic culture was characterized by pastoral as well as agricultural practices. People worshiped nature in, the form of deities such as Agni, Varuna and Surya  .

After the decline of the Indus Civilization numerous cultures developed across north India. Copper, followed by iron, came to be widely used. Iron helped to expand areas of cultivation leading to agrarian surplus. As this facilitated feeding of more number of people there were greater instances of in-migration and population growth. The Late Harappan cultures suggest that some of the groups moved into eastern direction, after the decline of the Indus Civilization.

Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna and other river valleys.

Neolithic age is the age in which animal and plant domestication developed, leading to food production.

• In 1580 Philip II, King of Spain, defeated Portugal and annexed it.
• In India the Dutch defeated the Portuguese in Ceylon and later seized the Portuguese fort on Malabar Coast.
• Thereafter rather than protecting their settlements in India, Portuguese began to evince greater interest in Brazil.

• The English acquired the islands of Bombay in 1668, and setup their headquarters In Bombay in 1687.
• Their primary objective was to develop Bombay as an alternate base for their operations.

May 1761 Puli Thevar's three major forts namely Nerkattumseval, Vasudevanallur and Panayur came under the control of Yusuf Khan

In 1815, the Governor of Madras received a communication from the Governor of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) asking for coolies to work on the coffee plantations.

'Settlement' refers to the assessment and fixing of the quantum of land revenue to be paid by each zamindar to the government.

The Zabt System (introduced by Todal Mal): money revenue rates were now fixed on each unit of area according to the crops cultivated. The schedules containing these rates for different localities applicable year afterJear were called dasturs.

1. Hurnayun was deeply engrossed in the affairs of Bahadur Shah.
2. the rebellions of the Gujarati people, Askari decided to proceed to Agra.
3. Sher Khan had strengthened himself by defeating the ruler of Bengal.
4. Sher Khan captured the fort of Rohtas and Bengal.

The Prarthana Samaj as an organization never had any great influence but its members, like M. G Ranade (1852-1901), R. G Bhandarkar, and K.T. Telang.

Social reform movements formed an integral part of the religious reforms primarily because all the efforts towards social ills like caste- and gender- based inequality derived legitimacy from religion.

Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10% of the revenue which Shivaji collected by virtue of his position as Sardeshmukh.
Sardeshinukh was the superior head of many Desais or Deshmukhs. Shivaji claimed that he was the hereditary

After the death of Madhav Rao II, Baji Rao II, the son of Raghunath Rao became the Peshwa and was the last Peshwa

The rise of syncretic sects and major poets and Saints such as Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Ravidas.

Serfoji II was in advance of both the missionary and the colonial state, for as early as 1803 in Thanjavur he had established the first modem public school for non-Christian natives.
While Indian rulers often endowed educational institutions of higher learning, they did not establish elementary schools, nor did they administer any schools or colleges.

The Maratha military system under the Peshwas was modelled on the Mughal military system.
The mode of recruitment, payment of salaries, provisions for the families of the soldiers, and the importance given to the cavalry showed a strong resemblance to the Mughal military system.

Tara Bai was wife of Rajaram.After his death she acting on behalf of his infant son, she despatched an army of 50,000 horsemen and infantry to Hyderabad.
The capital was plundered and, as a result, trade in Masulipatnam, the major port of the region, remained disrupted for years.

Mirabai became a devotee of Lord Krishna, left the palace and began singing her songs (bhajans) and preaching the path of love on God.

1. Ravidas devotional songs were included in the Sikh Scriptures.
2. Ravidas spoke against social divisions of caste and gender, and promoted unity in the pursuit of personal spiritual freedoms.

1. The British neglected irrigation.
2. The irrigation channels and tanks built by Indian rulers fell into disuse and there was little effort on the part of the Company to undertake repairs or renovation works.
3. In Madras, as we will see in the following section, a few irrigation works were carried out because of the personal enthusiasm of Arthur Cotton, an Engineering officer.

Thomas Munro: Munro arrived Madras in 1780. In the first 12 years he was engaged in Mysore War as soldier. He worked in the Baramahal (Salem district) from 1792-1799 and Kanara from 1799-1800. He was collector of Ceded Districts: Kadapa, Kurnool, Chittoor, Anantapur. It was during this period that he conceived the idea of Ryotwari Settlement.

The SNDP Yogam took up several issues such as
Right of admission to public schools
Recruitment to government services.
Access to roads and entry to temples; and
Political representation.

• Birsa Munda led a revolt in the Chota Nagpur region.
• The indiscriminate slaughter of Munda women at Sail Rakab did not deter the followers of Birsa .
• The British authorities issued a warrant for Mirsa's arrest and put up a reward for his capture. Birsa became a martyr in Ranchi jail (9 June 1900).
• His name continues to inspire the tribals of the region

• Phule held radical views on social, religious, political and economic issues.
• He considered the caste system as an antithesis of the principle of human equality.
• He sought to raise the morale of the non-Brahmins and united them to revolt against the centuries old inequality and social degradation .
• Towards this end Phule founded the Satya Shodak Samaj (Society for Seeking Truth) in 1875. His most important book is Gulamgiri (Slavery).

• Pagoda was the dominant currency in use at the time of arrival of European traders. It was a gold coin of Vijayanagar descent.
• It was called varagan in Tamil. During the reign of Tipu Sultan, one pagoda was the equivalent of three and half rupees in Mysore.
• "Shaking the pagoda tree" was a phrase used in England to describe the opportunities for making quick fortunes in India.

The rulers of Warangal and Orissa to facilitate smooth administration, divided the kingdom into four territorial divisions called tarafs, each under a governor.

• The cartaz system, the Portuguese exacted money from the traders as the price for protection against what they termed as piracy.
• But much of this was caused by Portuguese freebooters themselves and so the whole system was a blatant protection racket

• Manufacturing - that is, handicraft production - was carried on both in urban and rural areas.
• Luxury crafts, like metalwork were urban based. Weaving was mostly done in rural areas. India had a great advantage in that cotton was grown in the country.
• Indian craft communities also possessed specialized knowledge about dyeing cotton using chemicals like alum to produce a permanent colour.

1. Tamil literature was dominated by Saivite and Vaishnavite literature.
2. Kumaraguruparar, a great Saiva poet, is said to have visited Varanasi in the late seventeenth century.
3. He composed important literary works such as Meenakshiammai Pillai Tamil and Neethineri Vilakkam.
4. Thayumanavar wrote highly devotional verses with compassion for all humanity and he formulated a sanmarga that tried to bridge differences between the various Saivite sects.
5.The Christian missionaries like Roberto de Nobili and Constantine Joseph Beschi contributed much to Tamil language

The Jats (Mathura district), the Satnamis (Haryana region), and the Sikhs rebelled against Aurangzeb.

(a) William Hawkins
In 1611, King James I obtained from Mughal Emperor Jahangir through William Hawkins, permission for regular trade. The English obtained some trading privileges in Surat.
(b) Sir Thomas Roe
1. In 1615-19 Sir Thomas Roe was sent as an Ambassador of the English King James I.
2. The Viceroy of Gujarat, Prince Khurram granted trading privileges, but the British could not operate freely because the Portuguese exercised a powerful influence in the region.

Various units of the land measurement such as kuli, ma, veli, patti, padagam, etc. are known, with local variations.

The Cholas ventured overseas conquering the north-eastern parts of Sri Lanka, bringing it under their control and they called it Mummudi-Cholamandalam.

1. Al-Beruni: Tarikh-Al-Hind (Indian Philosophy and Religion written in Arabic )
2. MinhejueSiraj: Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (1260) (World Islamic History written in Arabic )

1. Ramanuja was it teacher-reformer and a great organiser.
2. He challenged the monist ideology of Adi Sankara and in his effort to widen the social base to include social groups other than Brahmans.
3. Described as qualified monism, his philosophy of Visishtadvaita influenced many thinkers and developed into a separate tradition.

1. The Aihole inscriptions of the Chalukya king Pulakisin II provide details of Pallava Chalukya conflict.
2. The sculptures in the temples in Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal reflect the culture of the times.

1. His army remained in effective control of Thondaimandalam, consisting of Arcot, Chengalpattu and Vellore.
2. In 949 CE, he defeated the Chola army of Rajadithya in the battle of Takkolam (in present day Vellore district).

Harsha as King of Kanauj
1. The magnates of Kanauj (the capital of Maukhari kingdom), on the advice of their minister Poni, invited Harsha to ascend the throne.
2. A reluctant Harsha accepted the throne on the advice of Avalokitesvara Bodhisatva with the title of Rajputra and Siladitya.
3. Thus the two kingdoms of Thaneswar and Kanauj became united under Harsha's rule.
4. Consequently, Harsha transferred his capital to Kanauj.

The first regular Buddhist work on logic was written by Vasubandhu. Vasubandhu's disciple, Dignaga, was also the author of many learned works.

1. The origin of Huns is not definitely known. According to Roman historian Tacitus, they were a barbarian tribe living near Caspian Sea and contributed to the fall of Roman Empire.
2. They organised under Attila and were known for their savagery and bestiality in Europe.
3. One branch of Huns, know as white Huns, moved towards India from Central Asia and their invasion began about a hundred years after the Kushanas.

From Rome, the main imports were coin, topaz, antimony, coral, crude glass, copper, tin and lead and wine.

1. Menander successfully attacked Pataliputra, but retreated without consolidating his conquest.
2. Interestingly, in his coins, he is described as "king" and "soter" or saviour, and not as a great conqueror.

1. Seleucus surrendered the land he had conquered up to the Indus and
2. Received 500 war elephants in return.
3. A marriage agreement between theem.
4. The treaty also led to the establishment of diplomatic relations between the Greeks and the Mauryan emperor.

Adukotpattu Cheralathan
Father - Kudakko Cheralathan
Mother - Velaavi komaan's daughter (Paduman) Devi
Capital: Thondi
Period of Rule : 25 years - (A.D. 19-44)

Maduraikanchi refers to Mudukudumi-Peruvazhuthi and another Nedunchezhiyan, victor ofTalaiyalanganam, and a few other Pandya kings. Mudukudimi-Peruvazhuthi is referred to in the Velvikkudi copper plates of eighth century for donating land to Brahmans.

1. The play Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta.
2. Arthasastra was a prescriptive text, which laid down the guidelines for good administration.

1. The first Nanda ruler was Mahapadma.
2. It is believed that he usurped the throne by murdering the last of the Shishunaga kings.
3. Nandas exterminated many kshatriya clans and subjugated kshatriya-ruled kingdoms.
4. Nanda was succeeded by his eight sons, and they were together known as the navanandas or the nine Nandas.

1. A Buddhist temple was built in Nagapattinam at the request of a Chinese ruler during the reign of Palla va king Narasimhavarman II (CE 695-722).
2. In CE 1006,during the reign of Rajaraja I, Srivijay King Mara-vijayottunggavarman built a Buddhist temple in Nagapattinam.

Jainism's insistence on non-violence closed other occupations, including agriculture, as it prescribed refraining from intended or unintended killing.

The Buddhist texts were compiled in Pali. The Pali canons are called as the Tripitakas(Three Baskets). They are Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Agni, Surya, Siva, Sinivalli, Ushas.

The Zend Avesta is a Persian/Iranian text of Zoroastrianism. This book speaks about the lands and gods of the people speaking the Indo-Iranian languages.

The Great Bath is a tank situated within a courtyard. The corridors were present on all four sides and stairs are seen on the northern and southern sides. It was well paved with several adjacent rooms.

1. The date of the Mesolithic culture varies in different parts of the world.
2. This culture is assigned to pre-agricultural times in certain areas.

Palaeolithic period is divided into
1. Lower Palaeolithic culture
2. Middle Palaeolithic culture
3. Upper Palaeolithic culture.

The Various locality groups functioned actively in the Chola period bodies such as Urar, Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar and Nattar.

On the basis of style these temples are classified into two groups: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian.

1. The Jaina canonical literature at first took shape in Prakrit dialects. Sanskrit came to be the medium later.
2. Within a short time, Jainism produced many great scholars and by their efforts the Hindu itihasa and puranas were recast in Jaina versions to popularise their doctrines.
3. Vimala produced a Jaina version of Ramayana. Siddasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas.

Trade was carried on by the overland route via north-west Afghanistan (Bactria) and also partly by the coastal route along the Persian Gulf and Red Sea.

The word "Hindu" appears for the first time in an inscription of Darius I at Persepolis, Iran. Darius lists "Hindu" as part of his empire. The word "Sindhu", denoting a river in general and Indus in particular, became "Hindu" in Persian. The Greeks dropped the S and called it Indu, which eventually came to be called Hindu and later India.

They used copper objects such as flat axes, bangles, rings, antimony rods, knives, blades, socket-less axes, barbed and tanged arrow heads, choppers and chisels.

The early Acheulian tools include polyhedrons, spheroids, hand axes, cleavers and flake tools.

The third battle of Panipat, 1761 is one of the decisive battles in the history of India.
The defeat in the battle dealt a severe blow to the Marathas and the Mughal Empire and thereby paved the way for the rise of the British power in India

1. The most salient features of his teachings is denunciation of polytheism, idolatry,and caste.
2. He was equally unsparing in his condemnation of Muslim formalism.

1. Traditionally Hindu custom allowed the adoption of a son in the absence of male heirs.
2. The adopted son had the right to inherit property. In this context the question raised was whether such an adopted prince holding the state subordinate to the Paramount Power (England) could succeed without the consent of the latter.
3. Before Dalhousie's arrival, the custom was to obtain the sanction of the Company government before or after adoption.

In 1801 both the Sivagangai and Ramanathapuram forces joined together under the command of Shevatha Thambi, the son of Chinna Marudu, and marched along the coast towards Thanjavur. Thereupon the distressed peasants in Thanjavur also joined the force of Shevatha Thambi. Captain William Blackburne, the resident of Thanjaur collected a force and defeated Shevatha Thambi near Mangudi. Serfoji, the raja of Thanjavur stood firmly by the British. Yet the fighters could elude the pursuit of the British troops by rapid movements, while laying the entire region waste

• The most famous among his disciples was a young graduate of the Calcutta University named Narendranath Dutta, afterward famously called Swami Vivekananda( 1863-1902).
• Emphasising practical work over philosophizing he established the modem institution of the Ramakrishna Mission.
• He carried Ramakrishna's message allover India and the world.
• His learning, eloquence, spiritual fervour and personality gathered round him a band of followers across the country, many of whom also joined the national movement.

1. Akbar provided a systematic and centralised system of administration which contributed to the success of the empire.
2. He introduced the Mansabdari system.
3. The nobles, civil and military officials combined into one single service with each officer receiving the title of Mansabdar.
4. Mansabdar rank was divided into Zat and Sawar.
5. The former determined the number of soldiers each Mansabdar received ranging from 10 to 10,000. The latter determined the number of horses under a Mansabdar.
6. Each officer could rise from the lowest to the highest ranks. Promotions and demotions were made through additions or reductions of Mansabs.
7. The Mansabdari system diversified the ethnic base of his nobility.

1. The term Nayak is used from thirteenth century onwards in Telugu and Kannada areas in the sense of a military leader or simply soldier.
2. Assigning the revenue of a particular locality to the Nayak for their military service is found in the Kakatiya kingdom during the thirteenth century.
3. This is similar to the iqta system practiced by the Delhi Sultanate at that time.
4. But in the Vijayanagar kingdom the regular assignment of revenue yielding territory in return for military service is clearly found only from about 1500 or a little earlier.

• Denmark and Norway (together till 1813) possessed colonial settlements in India and Tamil Nadu.
• Tarangambadi or Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu, Serampore in West Bengal and Nicobar Islands were their possessions in India. On March 17, 1616 the King of Denmark, Christian IV, issued a charter and created a Danish East India Company.
• This Company did not get any positive response from the Danish traders. Admiral Ove Gjedde led the first expedition to Ceylon in 1618. The Danes could not get any trade contract in Ceylon.
• While they were returning in disappointment their main vessel was sunk by the Portuguese at Karaikkal. Thirteen stranded sailors with their trade director Robert Crappe were taken to the Nayak ruler of Thanjavur.
• Robert Crappe ably negotiated with the Thanjavur King and struck an agreement. According to the agreement signed on 20 November 1620, the Danes received the village ofTarangambadi or Tranquebar and the right to construct a Fort there.

Two guild- like groups are known: anjuvannattar and manigramattar.

1. After Iltutmish's death. The monarch was succeeded by a son, a daughter (Sultana Razia), another son, and a grandson, all within ten years, and finally by his youngest son Sultan Nasir aI-Din Mahmud II (1246-66).
2. Iltutmish's descendants fought long but in vain with their father's military slaves who had been appointed as governors of vast territories and generals of large armies.

1. Chalukya dynasty of Jayasirnhan I line appointed royal ladies as provincial governors. They also issued coins in some instances.
2. Vijya Bhattariga, a Chalukya princess, issued inscriptions. Pallava queens did not take active part in the administration of the kingdom, but they built shrines, and installed images of various deities, and endowed temples.
3. The image of Queen Rangapataka, the queen of Rajasimha, is found in the inscription in Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram.

1. They are square-shaped except Kailasanatha cave (cave-16), which is a massive monolithic structure, carved out of a single solid rock.
2. This temple is said to represent Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva. The temple is two storeyed and the Kailasa temple is on the first one.
3. The lower storey has carved life-size elephants, which looks like they are holding up the temple on their backs.
4. The temple exterior has richly carved windows, images of deities from the Hindu scriptures and Mithunas (amorous male and female figures).

1. Internal fighting and dissensions among the royal family led to its collapse.
2. In the sixth century CE, the Huns occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab and Gandhara. As the Hun invasion weakened the Gupta.
3. Independent rulers emerged all over the north like Yasodharman of Malwa, the Maukharis of Uttar Pradesh, the Maitrakas in Saurashtra and others in Bengal.

1. The highly formalised methods of vedic learning helped inspire the establishment of large teaching institutions such as Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramashila, which are often characterised as India's early universities.
2. Nalanda flourished under the patronage of the Gupta Empire in the fifth and sixth centuries and later under Harsha, the emperor of Kanauj.

1. Boats came in from the interior carrying rice and took back fish, which indicates a kind of barter trade in the primary consumption goods.
2. At the same time, sacks of pepper were brought to the market and were exchanged for gold, which came in the ships, which in turn, was transported on barges to the shore.

Karikalan's foremost military achievement was the defeat of the Cheras and Pandyas, supported by as many as eleven Velir chieftains at Venni. He is credited with converting forest into habitable regions and developing agriculture by providing irrigation through the embankment of the Kaveri and building reservoirs.

1. Spinning and weaving, especially of cotton fabrics, relying on the universal availability of cotton throughout India.
2. A great variety of cloth was produced in the country, ranging from the coarse fabrics used by the ordinary people for everyday use, to the very fine textures worn by the upper classes and the royalty.
3. The Arthasastra refers to the regions producing specialised textiles - Kasi (Benares), Vanga (Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Madurai and many others.
4. Each region produced many distinctive and specialised varieties of fabrics.
5. Cloth embroidered with gold and silver was worn by the King and members of the royal court.
6. Silk was known and was generally referred to as Chinese silk, which also indicates that extensive trade was carried on in the Mauryan Empire.

1. The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies.
2. The king was also the sovereign ruler.
3. The king levied taxes out of agricultural surplus and redistributed it and ensured maintenance of law and order in a hierarchical society by force and coercion.
4. These features marked the formation of state in the Gangetic plains.

Jainisrn spread to Tamil Nadu from about the third century CE.
1. Jaina rock shelters are found in large numbers around Madurai and other places.
2. The Jaina temples is at Tiruparuthikunram near Kanchipuram with beautiful ceiling paintings.

1. Political and administrative centres such as Rajgriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi and Champa
2. Centres of trade and commerce such as Ujjain and Taxila
3. Holy centres such as Vaishali.

1. The Rig Veda refers to Arya varna and Dasa varna. The Dasas and Dasyus were conquered and treated as slaves
2. Social classes were classified as warriors, priests and common people. Sudras as a category of people appeared at the end of the Rig Vedic period.

1. Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan-Iran border;
2. Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north;
3. Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east and
4. Daimabad (Maharashtra,India) in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation.
5. Its core area was In the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.

The Middle Palaeolithic culture in India is dated between 3,85,000 and 40,000 BCE.
1. The Middle Palaeolithic sites are found in Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna and other river valleys.
2. The main features of the Indian Middle Palaeolithic period include the following:
3. The tools became smaller.
4. The decrease in the use of hand axes in relation to other tools.
5. Use of core preparation techniques in stone tool production.
6. Use of chert, jasper, chalcedony and quartz as raw materials.