The cavalry was naturally the main strength of the Maratha army. Every jagirdar had to bring a stipulated number of horsemen for a general muster, every year.
The horsemen were divided into three classes based on the quality of the horses they kept

1. Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by people of the first,three orders in the social hierarchy became available to everyone.
2. Bhakti movement provided women and members of the lower strata of the society an inclusive path to spiritual salvation.
3. Literature on devotional songs in regional languages became profuse.
4. The poet-saints of this movement championed a wide range of philosophical positions, ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita.

1. 'Settlement' refers to the assessment and fixing of the quantum of land revenue to be paid by each zamindar to the government.
2. For Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, this was fixed permanently.
3. Thus the zamindars who were originally tax collectors acquired hereditary rights over the land assigned by the government.

• The most famous among his disciples was a young graduate of the Calcutta University named Narendranath Dutta, afterward famously called Swami Vivekananda( 1863-1902).
• Emphasising practical work over philosophizing he established the modem institution of the Ramakrishna Mission.
• He carried Ramakrishna's message allover India and the world.
• His learning, eloquence, spiritual fervour and personality gathered round him a band of followers across the country, many of whom also joined the national movement.

1. Akbar felt that behind the multiplicity of names there in religion was but God is one.
2. The exact word used by Akbar and Badauni to illustrate the philosophy of Akbar is Tauhid-i-Ilahi namely Din Ilahi.
3. Tauhid-i-Ilahi literally meant divine monotheism.

1. The battle was fought at Talikota or Rakshasi- Tangadi in January 1565 in which Ramaraya, in spite of his old age, personally commanded the forces along with his cousins and brothers.
2. In the final stages, the battle was lost. Ramaraya was imprisoned and executed immediately.
3. The victorious Bahmani armies entered the Vijayanagar city for the first time in their history, and ransacked it for several months laying it waste.

The landholders of vellanvagai villages were placed next in the social hierarchy. Ulukudi (tenants) could not own land but had to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and holders of vellanvagai villages. While landholders retained melvararn (major share in harvest), the ulukudi got kizhvaram (lower share). Labourers (paniceymakkal) and slaves (adimaigal) stayed at the bottom of social hierarchy.

1. Jainism was patronised by later rulers such as Amoghavarsha I, Indra IV, Krishna II and Indra III.
2. Buddhism had declined and its only important centre was at Kanheri. The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning.
3. Kannada and Sanskrit literature made great progress during their reign. Amoghavarsha I was the author of Prasnottaramalika, a Sanskrit work, and Kavirajarnarga, a Kannada work.
4. Jinasena wrote the Adipurana of the Jains.
5. Krishna II's spiritual guide, Gunabhadra, wrote the Mahapurana of the Jains.
6. The three gems of ancient Kannada literature - Kavichakravarthi Ponna, Adikavi Panpa and Kavichakravarti Ranna - were patronised by Rashtrkuta king Krishna III, as well as by Tailapa and Satyashraya of Western Chalukyas.

1. The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains were all monarchies.
2. The king was also the sovereign ruler.
3. The king levied taxes out of agricultural surplus and redistributed it and ensured maintenance of law and order in a hierarchical society by force and coercion.
4. These features marked the formation of state in the Gangetic plains.

1. Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan-Iran border;
2. Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north;
3. Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east and
4. Daimabad (Maharashtra,India) in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation.
5. Its core area was In the regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.

1. Famine, though no stranger to India, increased in frequency and deadliness with the advent of British colonial rule.
2. Between 1800 and 1825, there were only four famines. But in the last quarter of the century there were 22 famines. It is estimated that over five million died. By 1901, Romesh Chunder Dutt, a former ICS officer and a staunch nationalist, enumerated 10 mass famines since the 1860s, putting the total death toll at 15, million.
3. The laissez faire (non-intervention) principles to which the colonial state was committed since 1833 was applied to famines also. For years, western educated Indians had argued that British rule was grossly impoverishing India
4. The Orissa famine, in which one third of the population died of starvation and disease, served as a patent proof of this thesis. It prompted nationalist Dadabhai Naoroji, to begin his lifelong investigations into Indian poverty.
5. Madras Famine of 1876-78: The failure of two successive monsoons caused a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876-78.
6. The viceroy Lytton adopted an hands-off approach similar to that followed in Orissa. 3.5 million people died in the presidency.
7. The introduction of plantation crops and slope cultivation in Ceylon, Mauritius, Fiji, Malaya, the Caribbean islands, Natal and South Africa required enormous labour. Initially slave labour was used for this purpose. But after the Company government abolished slavery in India (1843), the system of indentured was used.

• Phule held radical views on social, religious, political and economic issues.
• He considered the caste system as an antithesis of the principle of human equality.
• He sought to raise. the morale of the non-Brahmins and united them to revolt against the centuries old inequality and social degradation.
• Towards this end Phule founded the Satya Shodak Samaj (Society for Seeking Truth) in 1875.
• His most important book is Gulamgiri (Slavery).

1. Gawan fought successful wars against the rulers of Konkan, Orissa and Vijayanagar. He was known for his administrative reforms.
2. He used Persian chemists to teach the preparation and the use of gunpowder. In his war against the Vijayanagar Kings in Belgaum, he used gunpowder.
3. In order to tighten the administration and to curb the power of provincial governors, who functioned virtually as kings, Gawan divided the existing four provinces of the Bahrnani Sultanate into eight.
4. This not only limited the area under the rule of each governor but also made the provincial administration more manageable.
5. He placed some districts in the provinces directly under central administration.
6. Gawan sought to curtail the military powers ofthe governors by allowing them to occupy only one fort in their territory.

Sources of revenue were Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
The Chauth was divided into
25 percent for the ruler
66 percent for Maratha officials and military heads for the maintenance of troops.
6 percent for the Pant Sachiv (Chief, a Brahman by birth)
3 percent for the tax collectors
Customs, excise duties and sale of forest produce also yielded much income. Goldsmiths were allowed to mint coins on payment of royalty to the government and getting license for the purpose.
They had to maintain a certain standard. When it was found that the standard was not being met all private mints were closed in 1760 and a central mint was established.
Miscellaneous taxes were also collected. It included
Tax on land, held by Deshmukhs and Deshpandes.
Tax on land kept for the village Mahars.
Tax on the lands irrigated by wells.
House tax from all except Brahmins and village officials.
Annual fee for the testing of weights and measures.
Tax on the re-marriage of widows.
Tax on sheep and buffaloes.
Pasture fee.
Tax on melon cultivation in river beds.
Succession duty.
Duty on the sale of horses, etc.
When the Maratha government was in financial difficulty, it levied on all landholders, Kurja-Patti or Tasti-Patti, a tax equal to one year's income of the taxpayer.

1. Sufism had become an influential aspect of Islamic social life as it extended over almost the entire Muslim community.
2. Sufism represents the inward or esoteric side and the mystical dimension of Islam.
3. Sufi saints transcended religious and communal distinctions, and worked for promoting the interest of humanity at large.
4. The Sufis were a class of philosophers remarkable for their religious catholicity and tolarance.
5. Sufis regarded God as the supreme beauty and believed that one must admire it, take delight in His thought and concentrate his attention on Him only.
6. They believed that God is 'Mashuq' (beloved) and Sufis are the' Ashiqs' (lovers). Sufism crystallized into various 'Silsilahs' or orders.
7. The most popular Sufi orders were Chistis, Suhrawardis, Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis.
8 Sufism took root in both rural and urban areas, arid exercised a deep social, political and cultural influence on the masses.
9. It rebelled against all forms of religious formalism, orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy, and endeavored to create a new world order in which spiritual bliss was the ultimate goal.
10. At a time when struggle for political power was the prevailing trend, the Sufi saints reminded people of their moral obligations.
11. In a world torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring peace and harmony.
12 The most important contribution of Sufism is that it helped to blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim conflicts and prejudices by forging the feelings of solidarity and brotherhood between these two religious communities.

Causes:
• The rebellion first began as a mutiny in Barrackpore (near Calcutta). Manga1 Pandey murdered his officer in January 1857 and a mutiny broke out there.
• In the following month, at Meerut, of the 90 sepoys who were to receive their cartridges only five obeyed orders. On 10 May three sepoy regiments revolted, killed their officers, and released those who had been imprisoned.
• The next day they reached Delhi, murdered Europeans, and seized that city. The rebels proclaimed Bahadur Shah II as emperor. Henry Havelock, who was sent to deal with the situation, defeated Nana Sahib the day after the massacre.
• Neill, who was left there, took terrible vengeance and those whom he regarded as guilty were executed. Towards the close of November Tania Topi seized Kanpur but it was soon recovered by Campbell.
Result:
• A Royal Durbar was held at Allahabad on November 1, 1858. The proclamation issued by Queen Victoria was read at the Durbar by Lord Canning, who was the last Governor General and the first Viceroy of India.
• Hereafter India would be governed by and in the name of the British Monarch through a Secretary of State. The Secretary of State was to be assisted by a Council ofIndia consisting of fifteen members. As a result, the Court of Directors and the Board of Control of the East India Company were abolished and the Crown and Parliament became constitutionally responsible for the governance of India. The separate army of the East India Company was abolished and merged with that of Crown.
• Proclamation endorsed the treaties made by the Company with Indian princes, promised to respect their rights, dignity and honour, and disavowed any ambition to extend the existing British possessions in India.
• The new council of 1861 was to have Indian nomination, since the Parliament thought the Legislative Council of 1853 consisted of only Europeans who had never bothered to consult Indian opinion and that led to the crisis.
• The Doctrine of Lapse and the policy of annexation to be given up. A general amnesty (pardon) to be granted to the rebels except those who directly. involved in killing the British subjects.

1. The Ain-i-Akbari lists the various crops cultivated during the Rabi and Kharif seasons.
2. Tobacco and maize were introduced in the seventeenth century.
3. Chilli and groundnut came later. Pineapple was introduced in the sixteenth century.
4. Grafted varieties of mango came to be developed by the Portuguese.
5. Potato, tomato and guava came later. Indigo was another important commercial crop during the Mughal period.
6. Sericulture underwent spectacular growth in Bengal to the extent that it became the chief supplier of silk to world trade.
7. The farmers were compelled to pay land tax they had to sell the surplus in the market.
8. The land tax was a share of the actual produce and was a major source of revenue for the Mughal ruling class.
9. The administration determined the productivity of the land and assessed the tax based on the total measurement.
10. Akbar promulgated the Zabt System (introduced by Todal Mal): money revenue rates were now fixed on each unit of area according to the crops cultivated.
11. The schedules containing these rates for different localities applicable year after year were called dasturs.
12. The urban economy was based on craft industry. Cotton textile industry employed large numbers of people as cotton carders, spinners, dyers, printers and washers. Iron, copper, diamond mining and gun making were other chief occupations.
13. Kharkhanas were workshops where expensive craft products were produced. The royal kharkhanas manufactured articles for the use of the royal family and nobility.
14. The excess production of the artisans was diverted to the merchants and traders for local and distant markets.

• The British had to fight three wars (1746- 1763) with the French to establish their supremacy, which in history are called the Carnatic wars.
First Carnatic War 1746-48:
• The Austrian War of Succession and Seven Years War fought in Europe had their repercussions in India.
• The Austrian ruler Charles VI died in 1740 and was succeeded by his daughter Maria Theresa.
• France did not support her succession and joined hands with German-speaking territories of Austria such as Bavaria, Saxony and Spain:
• Frederick II (known as Frederick the Great of Prussia) taking advantage of the emerging political situation invaded and annexed Silesia, an Austrian province, with the support of France.
• The wars fought between Britain and France in Europe also led to clashes between these two countries over their colonial possessions in North America and India.
The Second Carnatic War: 1749-54
 • In Europe peace prevailed between the British and the French. But the two colonial powers could not live in peace in India.
• They played one native ruler against the other. Dupleix wanted to enhance the French influence by involving in the wars of succession in both Hyderabad and Arcot .
The Third Carnatic War: 1756-1763
• The third Carnatic War was an echo of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) which broke out in Europe in 1756: It was a global conflict and was fought between the two arch-rivals Britain and France.
• The war was fought in North America (resulting in the American War of Independence), and West Africa (which later became the French West Africa).
• In India it manifested itself in the Third Carnatic war. Before turning our attention to the Third Carnatic War, let us see what happened in Bengal in the meantime.

1. Chola temples became the arena of social celebrations and functioned as social institutions. They became the hub of societal space in organising social, political, economic and cultural activities.
2. The prime temple officials were koyirramar, koyilkanakku (temple accountant), deva- kanmi (agent of god), srivaisnavar, cantesar (temple manager) and others.
3. They promoted the development of learning, dance, music, painting and drama. A play called Rajarajanatakam, based on the life of Rajaraja I, was performed in the Thanjavur temple.
4. The festivals of ChithiraiTiruvizha, Kartigai and Aippasivizha were celebrated. It is said that singing hymns in temple premises promoted oral literacy.
5. Traditional dance items like kudak-kuthu and sakkaik-kuthu were portrayed in the form of sculptures and paintings in the temples in Kilapalivur, Tiruvorriyur.
6. Nirutya and kama poses are shown in sculptural forms in the Thanjavur big temple. Traditional Tamil musical instruments also were portrayed in this way.
7. Temples functioned as banks by advancing loans and by purchasing and receiving endowments and donations.
8. They also became educational centres as training was imparted in Vedas, music and the arts. Sculpture and metal work too were promoted. Temple accounts were audited and the auditor was called koyilkanakku.

Conciliatory Policy towards Nobles:
Firuz Tughlaq followed a conciliatory policy towards the nobles and theologians. Firuz restored the property of the owners who had been deprived of it during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq.
Firuz Policy of No Wars:
Firuz waged no wars of annexation, though he was not averse to putting down rebellions challenging his authority.
Religious Policy:
Firuz favoured orthodox Islam. He proclaimed his state to be an Islamic state largely to satisfy the theologians.
Public Works:
Firuz undertook many irrigation projects. A canal he dug from Sutlej river to Hansi and another canal in Jumna indicate his sound policy of public works development.

The polities of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas were pre-state chiefdoms. The arguments for the latter view are:
1. No social stratification is noticed.
2. Proper territorial association is absent.
3. Destructive warfare did not allow the development of agriculture and surplus production for the emergence of the state.
4. No evidence of taxation as in the governments of North India.

Kacchayana believed that the world was made of seven substances that were unmade, irreducible, uncreated, barren, stable as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar that do not alter, do not change, do not interfere with one another, are incapable of causing one another pleasure, pain or both pleasure and pain.The Ajivikas had rich lay disciples such as potters and bankers. The Ajivika sect spread across the length and breadth of the country, though their influence was much less compared to that of Buddhism and Jainism.

The period before the development of script is called the pre-historic times. It is also referred to as the Stone Age.
1. Human ancestors are likely to have first evolved in Africa and later migrated to different parts of the world.
2. The earliest human ancestor species to migrate out of Africa was the Homo erectus.
3. Generally, the period before the invention of script is broadly divided into Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
4. The earliest age in history is called Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic.
5. This period is divided into
6. Lower Palaeolithic culture
7. Middle Palaeolithic culture
8. Upper Palaeolithic culture.
9. The period after the Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) is called the Mesolithic Age.
10. The period that followed the Mesolithic is called the Neolithic Age.
11. This is the age in which animal and plant domestication developed, leading to food production.

• The English acquired the islands of Bombay in 1668, and setup their headquarters In Bombay in 1687.
• Their primary objective was to develop Bombay as an alternate base for their operations.

The Brahmo Samaj broke into two namely Devendranath Tagore's, 'Brahmo Samaj of India' and Keshub Chandra Sen's 'Sadharan Brahmo Samaj'.

• Pagoda was the dominant currency in use at the time of arrival of European traders. It was a gold coin of Vijayanagar descent.
• It was called varagan in Tamil. During the reign of Tipu Sultan, one pagoda was the equivalent of three and half rupees in Mysore.
• "Shaking the pagoda tree" was a phrase used in England to describe the opportunities for making quick fortunes in India.

1.Harihara and Bukka, the eldest sons of one Sangama, earlier serving the Hoysala rulers of Karnataka, asserted their independence and laid foundation for a new kingdom in about 1336
2. Initially their capital was in or near about Anegondi on the north bank of the Tungabhadra river.But soon it was shifted to the Hoysala town Hosapattana (near Hampi) on the south bank.
3. The capital was expanded and renamed Vijayanagara, the city of Victory.

1. Akbar, enraged by his behavior issued a farman dismissing Bairam Khan.
2. This led to Bairam Khan's revolt which was ably dealt with by Akbar.
3. Bairam Khan, finally agreeing to submit himself to Akbar, proceeded to Mecca.

1. Muslims brought their musical instruments like Rabab and Sarangi. Amir Khusrau proclaimed that Indian music had a pre- eminence over all the other music of the world.
2. The Sufi practice of Sama, recitation of love poetry to the accompaniment of music, was instrumental in promotion of music.
3. PirBhodan, a Sufi saint, was considered a great musician of the age.

1. Hieun Tsang recorded the fame of the Nalanda University. Students and scholars from the Buddhist countries like China, Japan, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Tibet
2. Some other countries of Central and Southeast Asia stayed and studied in the university.
3. Shilabhadra, a reputed Buddhist scholar, who probably hailed from Assam, was the head of the University during the visit of Hieun Tsang.
4. As an educational centre of international fame, Nalanda had 10,000 students on its rolls.
5. Dharmapala, Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari, Jayasena, Devakara and Matanga were important teachers in the university receiving royal patronage.

1. There were merchants dealing with specific products like food grains, cloth, gold and jewellery in the markets of the big Cities.
2. Merchants were also involved in overseas trade, as well as overland trade.
3. Thus, the circuits of trade became more specialised with institutionalised arrangements to support the expanding commercial activities.

1. A centralised state required a new administrative framework to govern an extensive territory, the creation of a bureaucracy, resources of money and men for managing the administrationand the army.
2. A system of revenue administration had to be developed to raise the funds needed for the state through taxation.
3. A political formation led to the development of cities as administrative centres, distinct from villages and rural areas.
4. A large standing army was required for expanding and retaining the empire.

The Zend Avesta is a Persian/Iranian text of Zoroastrianism. This book speaks about the lands and gods of the people speaking the Indo-Iranian languages.