1.
2. The compound with more number of electrons on the valence shell,  \(\therefore\)  is considered to be the most electronegative element.
\(\therefore\) HZ is the most electronegative element which has highest dipole moment.

\({ K }_{ c }=\cfrac { \left[ { NH }_{ 3 } \right] ^{ 2 } }{ \left[ { N }_{ 2 } \right] \left[ { H }_{ 2 } \right] ^{ 3 } } =\cfrac { 1.2\times { 10 }^{ -2 } }{ 1.5\times { 10 }^{ -2 }\times \left( 3\times { 10 }^{ -2 } \right) ^{ 3 } } \)

Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. If the water is the solvent in the solution, then it is an aqueous solution.

\({ CH }_{ 3 }-CH={ CH }_{ 2 }+HBr\overset { Peroxide }{ \underset { ({ C }_{ 6 }{ H }_{ 5 }CO)_{ 2 }{ O }_{ 2 } }{ \longrightarrow } } { CH }_{ 3 }-{ CH }_{ 2 }-{ CH }_{ 2 }-Br\)
The H-CI bond is stronger (430.5 kJmol^-1 ) than H-Br bond (363.7 kJmol^-1), thus H-CI is not cleaved by the free radical. The H-I bond is weaker (296.8 kJmol^-1), than H-CI bond. us H-I bond breaks easily but iodine free radicals combine to form iodine molecules instead of adding to the double bond and hence peroxide effect is not observed in HCI& HI.

"When an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with hydrogen halide, the hydrogen adds to the carbon that has more number of hydrogen and halogen add to the carbon having fewer hydrogen". this rule can also be stated as in the addition reaction of alkene/alkyne, the most electro negative part of the reagent adds on to the least hydrogen attached doubly bonded carbon.

i) Acetic acid: Solid carbon dioxide reacts with Grignard reagent to form addition product which on hydrolysis yields carboxylic acids.

ii) Acetone :
\(\underset { Iodomethane }{ { CH }_{ 3 }-I+Mg } \overset { dryether }{ \longrightarrow } \underset { Methyl \ magnesium \ iodide }{ { CH }_{ 3 }MgI } \)
iii) Ethyl acetate: Ethy1chloroformate reacts with Grignard reagent to form esters.

iv) Iso propyl alcohol : Aldehydes other than formaldehyde, react with Grignard reagent to give addition product which on hydrolysis yields secondary alcohol.

v) Methyl cyanide : Grignard reagent reacts with cyanogen chloride to from alkyl cyanide

(i) The temperature below which a gas can be liquefied by application of pressure is known as critical temperature.
(ii) The critical temperature of CO₂ gas is 303.98 K.

The most reactive alkali metals decompose water in the cold with the evolution of hydrogen and leaving an alkali solution
2Na_(s) + 2H₂O₍₁₎ ⟶ 2NaOH_(aq) + H_2(g)

H₂(g) \(\rightarrow\) 2H(g). In this reaction, the number of gaseous particles increase, and hence entropy will also increase.

(i) 2s > 1s
(ii) 3p > 2p
(iii) 3d_xy > 3d_yz
(iv) 3s = 3d
(v) 5s > 4f.

The heat of neutralisation is defined as "The change in enthalpy when one gram equivalent of an acid is completely neutralised by one gram equivalent of a base or vice versa in dilute solution"

Gram equivalent mass of an element, compound or ion is the mass that combines or displaces 1.008 g hydrogen or 8 g oxygen or 35.5 g chlorine.

The net nuclear charge experienced by valence electrons in the outermost shell is called the effective nuclear charge.
Z_eff=Z-S
Where Z is the atomic number and 'S' is the screening constant.

1.\(NO\rightarrow(NO)^+e^-\)

Molecule	No.of electrons	Electonic configuration	Bond order
NO	15	\((\sigma_{1s})^2(\sigma^*_{1s})^2(\sigma_{2s})^2(\sigma^*_{2s})^2(\sigma_2p_z)^2(p_2p_x)^2(p_2p_y)^2(p^*_2p_x)^1\)	\({1\over2}({10-5})=2.5\)
NO+	14	\((\sigma_{1s})^2(\sigma^*_{1s})^2(\sigma_{2s})^2(\sigma^*_{2s})^2(\sigma_2p_z)^2(p_2p_x)^2(p_2p_y)^2\)	\({1\over2}({10-4})=3\)

\(NO\rightarrow(NO)^+e^-\)
Bond order increases
2.\(C_2+e^-\rightarrow C^-_2\)

Molecule	No.of electrons	Electonic configuration	Bond order
C2	12	\((\sigma_{1s})^2(\sigma^*_{1s})^2(\sigma_{2s})^2(\sigma^*_{2s})^2(p_2p_x)^2(p_2p_y)^2\)	\({1\over2}({8-4})=2\)
\(C^-_2\)	13	\((\sigma_{1s})^2(\sigma^*_{1s})^2(\sigma_{2s})^2(\sigma^*_{2s})^2(p_2p_x)^2(p_2p_y)^21(\sigma_2p_z)^1\)	\({1\over2}({9-4})=2.5\)

\(C_2+e^-\rightarrow C^-_2\)
Bond order increases

The knowledge of equilibrium constant helps us to
1. Predict the direction in which the net reaction will take place
2. Predict the extent of the reaction and
3. Calculate the equilibrium concentrations of the reactants and products.
It is to be noted that these constants do not provide any information regarding the rates of the forward or reverse reactions.

Huckel proposed that aromaticity is a function of electronic structure. A compound may be aromatic, if it obeys the following rules
(i) The molecule must be co-planar
(ii) Complete delocalization of \(\pi\) electron in the ring
(iii) Presence of (4n+2) \(\pi\) electrons in the ring where n is an integer (n=0,1,2 .... ) is known as Huckle's rule.

1.	Cyclo penta diene	(i) It has a planar Structure (ii) It has four \(\pi\) electron but the elecron are not delocalised and hence it is not an aromatic compound.
2.	Cyclooctatetraene	Molecule is non-planar and hence it is not an aromatic compound.
3.	Cyclopropenylcation	(i) Cyclopropenyl cation has planar structure. (ii) It has 2 delocalised \(\pi\) electron. (iii) 4n + 2 = 2 4n = 0 n = 0 (an interger) and hence it is aromatic compount.

(i) Test for halogens:To a portion of the Lassaigne's filtrate add dil HNO₃ warm gently and add AgNO₃ solution.
a) Appearance of curdy white precipitate soluble in ammonia solution indicates the presence of chlorine.
b) Appearance of pale yellow precipitate sparingly soluble in ammonia solution indicates the presence of bromine.
c) Appearance of a yellow precipitate insoluble in ammonia solution indicates I the presence of iodine.
\(Na+\underset { from\quad organic\\ compound }{ X } \overset { heat }{ \rightarrow } \quad \quad Na{ X }_{ (Where\quad X=Cl,\quad Br,I) }\)
Nax + AgNO₃ AgX + NaNO₃
(ii) If N or S is present in the compound along with the halogen, we might obtain NaCN and Na₂S in the solution, which interfere with the detection of the halogen in the AgNO₃ test Therefore we boil the Lassaignes extract with HNO₃ which decomposes NaCN and Na₂S as
\(NaCN+{ HNO }_{ 3 }\overset { \Delta }{ \rightarrow } { NaNO }_{ 3 }+HCN\uparrow \)
\({ Na }_{ 2 }S+{ 2HNO }_{ 3 }\overset { \Delta }{ \rightarrow } { aNaNO }_{ 3 }+{ H }_{ 2 }S\uparrow \)
\(NaCN+{ AgNO }_{ 3 }\overset { further }{ \rightarrow } \underset { white\quad ppt\quad confusing\quad with\quad AgCl }{ AgCN } +{ NaNO }_{ 3 }\)
\(\\ { Na }_{ 2 }S+{ AgNO }_{ 3 }\rightarrow \underset { black\quad ppt }{ { Ag }_{ 2 }S } \downarrow { NaNO }_{ 3 }\)

The inductive effect represents the ability of a particular atom or a group to either withdraw or donate electron density to the attached carbon. Based on this ability the substituents are classied as +I groups and -I groups. Their ability to release or withdraw the electron through sigma covalent bond is called +I effect and -I effect respectively.
Higher the electronegativity of the substitutent, greater is the -I effect. The order of the -I effect of some groups are given below.
NH₃⁺ > NO₂ > CN > SO₃H > CHO
Highly electropositive atoms and atoms are groups which carry a negative charge are electron donating or +I groups.
Example: Alkali metals, alkyl groups such as methyl, ethyl, negatively charged groups such as CH₃O^-, C₂H₅O^-, COO^- etc
Lesser the electronegativity of the elements, greater is the +I effect. The relative order of +I effect of some alkyl groups is given below
-C(CH₃)₃> - CH(CH₃)₂ > - CH₂CH₃ > - CH₃

(i) Silver Oxide(moist):

(ii) Sodium hydrogen sulphide:
\(\underset { Bromo \ ethane }{ { CH }_{ 3 }{ CH }_{ 2 }Br+NaSH } \overset { alcohol/{ H }_{ 2 }O }{ \underset { \triangle }{ \longrightarrow } } \underset { Ethan \ ethiol }{ { CH }_{ 3 }{ CH }_{ 2 }SH+NaBr } \)
(iii) Potassium cyanide :
\(\underset { Bromo \ ethane }{ { CH }_{ 3 }{ CH }_{ 2 }-Br+KCN } \longrightarrow \underset { Ethyl \ cryanide }{ { CH }_{ 3 }{ CH }_{ 2 }-CN+KBr } \)

(i) Freezing point is defined as "the temperature at which the solid and the liquid states of the substance have the same vapour pressure".
(ii) The freezing point of water is O°C. At this temperature the ice and the water are in equilibrium. When a nonvolatile solute is added to water at its freezing point, the freezing point of the solution is lowered from O°C. The lowering of the freezing point of the solvent when a solute is added is called depression in freezing point (\(\triangle\)T_f).

Without the heating caused by the greenhouse effect, earth's average surface temperature would be only about -18 ^oC (0 ^oF). Although the greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon, it is intensified by the continuous emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
During the past 100 years, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased by roughly 30 percent and the amount of methane more than doubled.If these trends continue, the average global temperature will increase which can lead to melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low areas. This will increase incidence of infectious diseases like dengu., malaria, etc.

Optical isomerism:
Compounds having same physical and chemical property but differ only in the rotation of plane of the polarized light are known as optical isomers and the phenomenon is known as optical isomerism.
Some organic compounds such as glucose have the ability to rotate the plane of the plane polarized light and they are said to be optically active compounds and this property of a compound is called optical activity. The optical isomer, which rotates the plane of
the plane polarised light to the right or in cloclauisl direction is said to be dextrorotary (dexter means right) denoted by the sign (+), whereas the compound which rotates to the left or anticloclanrise is said to be leavo rotatory (leanues mean left) denoted by sign(-).
Dextrorotatory compounds are represented as 'd' or by sign (+) and lavorotatory compounds are ( - ) represented as 'l' or by sign (-).
Enantiomerism and optical activity: An optically active substance may exist in two or more isomeric forms which have same physical and chemical properties but differ in terms of direction of rotation of plane polarized light, such optical isomers which rotate the plane of polarized light with equal angle but in opposite direction are known as enantiomers and the phenomenon is knovrrn as enantiomerism. Isomers which are non-super impossible mirror images of each other are called enantiomers.
conditions for enantiomerism or optical isomerism:
A carbon atom whose tetra vaiency is satisfied by four different substituents (atoms or groups) is called a symmetric carbon or chiral carbon. It is indicated by an asterisk as C*. A molecule Possessing chiral carbon atom and non-super impossible to its own mirror image is said to be a chiral molecule or asymmetric, and the pioperty is called chirality or dissymmetry.

i) 1s and 2p_y - sigma bond is formed
ii) 2P_x and 2P_x - sigma bond is formed
iii) 2p_x and 2p_z - No sigma bond is formed
iv) 1s and 2p_z - sigma bond is formed.

CH_4(g) + 2O₂ \(\rightarrow\) CO₂ + 2H₂O
16g                          (2x18)g
As per stoichiometric equation,
16 g of methane produces 36 g of H₂O
\(\therefore\) 32 g of methane will produce = \(\frac { 36 }{ 16 } \times 32=72\) g of water.

T₁ = 8°C + 273 = 281 K
P₁ = 6.4 atm V₁ = 2.1 ml
T₂ = 25°C + 273 = 298 K
P₂ = 1 atm V₂ =  ?
\(\frac{\mathrm{P}_{1} \mathrm{~V}_{1}}{\mathrm{~T}_{1}}=\frac{\mathrm{P}_{2} \mathrm{~V}_{2}}{\mathrm{~T}_{2}} \Rightarrow \mathrm{V}_{2}=\left(\frac{\mathrm{P}_{1} \mathrm{~V}_{1}}{\mathrm{~T}_{1}}\right) \times \frac{\mathrm{T}_{2}}{\mathrm{P}_{2}}\)

= 14.25 ml

CH₂O

H₂O₂ decomposes slowly on exposure to light.
2H₂O_2(l) ➝ 2H₂O_(l) + O_2(g)
In the presence of metal surfaces or traces of alkali (present in glass containers), the above reaction is catalysed and is therefore, stored in wax-lined glass or plastic vessels in dark.

T_i = 298 K
T_f = 298.45 K
k = 2.5 kJK^-1
m =3.5g
M_m = 28
heat evolved= kΔT
=k (T_f - T_i)
=2.5 KJ K^-1 (298.45 - 298)K
=1.125kJ
ΔH_c=\(\frac{1.125}{3.5}\times\)28KJmol^-1
ΔH_c = 9 kJ mol^-1

s-block and p-block (Groups 13-18) elements are collectively called representative elements or Main Group Elements.

In Na₂ SO₄.10 H₂O. So the metal will be Na (sodium). The salt is washing soda.

Circumference of the orbit - 2\(\pi\)r         .... ...(1)
Circumference of the orbit of H - atom (n = 1) - n\(\lambda\),  .........(2)
(1) = (2) \(2 \pi r=\lambda \text { (or) } 2 \pi r=\frac{\mathrm{h}}{\mathrm{mv}}\)

6Li + N₂ ⟶ 2Li₃ N

The similarities in 1s and 2s-orbitals are as follows :
(i) Both have the spherical shape
(ii) Both have the same angular momentum.
The difference in between them are as follows :
(i) Size of 2s-orbital is larger than that of 1s-orbital.
(ii) Energy of 2s-orbital is greater than that of  1s-orbital.
(iii) 2s-orbital has one node while 1s-orbital has no node.

(i) Due to low bond dissociation enthalpy, high electronegativity and large negative electron gain enthalpy, halogen have a strong tendency to accept electrons and thus get reduced.
X²+2e^- ⟶ 2X^-
(ii) The ready acceptance of an electron is due to the strong oxidising nature of halogens.
(iii) F₂ is the strongest oxidising halogen and it oxidises other halide ions in solution or even in the solid phase. In general, a halogen oxidises halide ions of higher atomic number.
(iv) Hence, the oxidising ability of halogens decreases from fluorine to iodine as :
F₂ > Cl₂ > Br₂ > I₂

The van der equation for a real gas is
\(\left( P+{{{am}^{2}}\over{{V}^{2}}} \right)(V-nb)=nRT\)
Pressure, Correction:
The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the force created by the bombardment of molecules on the walls of the container. The speed of a molecule moving towards the wall of the container is reduced by the attractive forces exerted by its neighbours. Hence, the measured gas pressure is lower than the ideal pressure of the gas. Hence, van der Waals introduced a correction term to this effect.
Van der Waals found out the forces of attraction experienced by a molecule near the wall are directly proportional to the square of the density of the gas.
\(P^{\prime} \propto \rho^{2} ; \quad \rho=\frac{n}{v}\)
where n is the number of moles of gas and
V is the volume of the container
\( \Rightarrow p^{\prime} \alpha \frac{n^{2}}{V^{2}} \)
\(\Rightarrow p^{\prime}=a \frac{n^{2}}{V^{2}}\)
where a is proportionality constant and depends on the nature of gas
Therefore \(P_{\text {ideal }}=P+\frac{\operatorname{an}^{2}}{V^{2}}\)

Volume Correction
As every individual molecule of a gas occupies a certain volume, the actual volume is less than the volume of the container,
V. Van der Waals introduced a correction factor V' to this effect. Let us calculate the correction term by considering gas molecules as spheres.
V = excluded volume
Excluded volume for two molecules
\(=\frac{4}{3} \pi(2 r)^{3}=8\left(\frac{4}{3} \pi r^{3}\right)=8 V_{m}\)
Where V_m it a volume of a single molecule
Excluded volume for single molecule = \(\frac{8 \mathrm{~V}_{\mathrm{m}}}{2}=4 \mathrm{~V}_{\mathrm{m}}\)
Excluded volume for n molecule = n(4V_m) = nb
Where b is van der waals constant which is equal to 4V_m
\( \Rightarrow V^{\prime}=n b \)
\(V_{\text {ideal }}=V-n b\)
Replacing the corrected pressure and volume in the ideal gas equation PV = nRT we get the Van der Waals equation of state for real gases as below,
\(\left(p+\frac{a^{2}}{V^{2}}\right)(V-n b)=n R T\)
The constants a and b are van der Waals constants and their values vary with the nature of the gas. It is an approximate formula for the non-ideal gas.

The solution to Schrodinger equation gives the permitted total energy values called eigen values and the corresponding wave function represent atomic orbitals.

Orbital	n	l
3px	3	1
4dx2-y2	4	2